eChapters

Cardamom, often called the “Queen of Spices”, is one of the most valuable and aromatic spices in the world. It belongs to the family Zingiberaceae and the genus Elettaria. Cardamom, which is indigenous to South India's Western Ghats, is grown for its tiny, fragrant, green pods that contain tiny seeds that are used in cosmetics, medicine, and cooking. Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu are the main cardamom-growing states in India, which ranks among the world's top producers. The crop grows best in shady regions with evenly distributed rainfall, rich forest soils, and humid, tropical weather.
Introduction
Shoot and capsule borer is a significant pest that infests a wide variety of wild and cultivated plants. Since larvae directly affect the reproductive plant parts, this pest becomes more significant in tropical and subtropical nations. Yellow peach moth, cardamom, or castor shoot and capsule borer are other names for the shoot and capsule borer (Thyagaraj, 2003).
Distribution: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. A serious pest of the nursery in cardamom
Host plants: Castor, turmeric, guava, mulberry, etc.

Introduction
India has a well-established fisheries and aquaculture industry that significantly impacts Gross Domestic Product (GDP), foreign exchange, and nutrition. The fisheries sector plays a crucial role in India’s economy, contributing approximately 1.07% to the national GDP and 6.72% to agricultural GDP in 2021-22 (Economic Survey, 2022). India is second-largest producer of fish in the world (after China), with an annual production of around 16.24 million metric tonnes (MMT) in 2022–23, comprising 12.2 MMT from Inland fisheries and 4.04 MMT from marine fisheries. The fisheries sector has experienced remarkable growth over the decades. Fish production surged from 0.75 MMT in 1950-51 to 12.59 MMT in 2018-19, marking a seventeen-fold increase. This growth has been accompanied by a rise in the sector’s contribution to agricultural GDP, which impressively increased from 0.84% in 1950 to 5.7% in 2017. India is one of the largest seafood exporters, with exports reaching INR 63,969 crores ($8.09 billion) in 2022-23 (Marine Products Export Development Authority - MPEDA). Frozen shrimp is the leading export commodity, followed by frozen fish and cephalopods. The USA, China, the EU, and Southeast Asian nations are key export markets. This robust performance underscores the sector’s role in bolstering India’s foreign exchange reserves. The sector supports direct employment to over 28 million people, mainly in coastal and rural communities (National Fisheries Development Board, 2023) and indirect employment, including processing, transportation, and allied workers.
Fish is an important source of protein, essential fatty acids, vitamins and minerals. The harvest, handling, processing and distribution of fish
provide livelihood for millions of people and also provide valuable foreign exchange earnings. In both the industrialized and developing countries, fish is an important and cheaper source of animal protein to local communities (Adewolu and Adeoti, 2010). Fish is also used as source of other nutrients such as micro nutrients, minerals, and essential fatty acids mainly in the Low Income Food Deficit Countries. However, the disadvantage with the fish is that it is highly perishable though it is an inexpensive protein source. Due to these characteristics, the fish suffers 50-60% higher post harvest losses compared to agricultural commodities.

Backyard farming is an unorganized sub sector of poultry industry. India has nearly 60 percent of its population living in rural areas. However, in the present scenario most of the commercial poultry production is concentrated in urban and semi urban areas due to high demand. Only 25 percent population living in urban area consumed about 75-80 percent of eggs and poultry meat. Nonavailability of poultry products and low purchasing power of the rural people devoid them of access to the highly nutritious products like egg and meat, thereby, resulting in malnutrition. Free range and small scale semi commercial
back-yard poultry production can be advantageously promoted in rural areas, as the large commercial poultry production continues to be concentrated in urban and semi-urban locations. It can be used as a powerful tool for alleviation of rural poverty, eradication of malnutrition and creation of gainful employment in vast rural areas (Sharma and Chatterjee, 2009; Rajkumar et al., 2010).
The most basic and simple backyard production system involves a few hens and a cockerel is essentially a closed system. Home-produced fertile eggs arehatched to provide replacements, birds feed by  scavenging or are provided with household scraps and crop by-products; there are virtually no veterinary inputs and the remaining eggs and meat produced are consumed within the household. Such very simple subsistence poultry production systems are probably quite rare. Producers with even slightly larger flocks, generate cash income from the sale of eggs and birds within the local community. Transactions may take place directly between producers and consumers, but traders and other market intermediaries may be involved, selling on to other sectors of the poultry industry. Village or backyard production systems are widely distributed and exist in both rural and urban areas. It is estimated that today in India, about 18 percent of total poultry output is derived from backyard production. 

Introduction
As global demand for seafood and high-protein foods grows, aquaculture has become a vital, fast-growing sector in food production. Fish farming supports food security, livelihoods, and nutrition worldwide but faces challenges like disease outbreaks, low growth rates, inefficient feed conversion, and limited genetic diversity. To address these issues, genetic improvement has become a key focus, enhancing farmed species’ resilience, productivity, and sustainability. Traditional breeding methods have driven genetic advancements, yet modern biotechnologies, particularly gene editing, now offer transformative potential (Gjedrem et al., 2012). Gene editing enables precise DNA modifications, enhancing desired traits without adding foreign genes. CRISPR-Cas9 TALENs (Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases) and ZFNs (Zinc Finger Nucleases) are vital tools. Among these, CRISPR-Cas9 has gained particular prominence due to its simplicity, affordability, and high specificity (Doudna & Charpentier, 2014). In aquaculture, gene editing can increase disease resistance, accelerate growth rates, and improve feed conversion efficiency— each vital for production efficiency and environmental sustainability (Yáñez et al., 2020). Despite its promise, gene editing in aquaculture faces technical, ethical, and regulatory challenges. Issues such as off-target effects, public acceptance, regulatory diversity, and animal welfare concerns impact the adoption of gene-edited fish in food production (Van Eenennaam & Young, 2017). This chapter explores gene editing’s transformative role in aquaculture, assessing strategies to enhance disease resistance, growth, feed efficiency, and regulatory and ethical considerations. By understanding gene editing’s current landscape, stakeholders can evaluate its potential to support sustainable aquaculture and food security worldwide.

INTRODUCTION
Tractors used for agricultural activities are used with many different agricultural implements for plowing, planting, harvesting and other operations. Tractors used for construction and industrial activities are used to pull and operate machinery used for transporting loads, digging, grading and other operations. Tractors and power tillers are pivotal machines that have revolutionized agricultural and industrial practices across the globe. These versatile vehicles have played an essential role in enhancing productivity, efficiency, and speed in a wide range of operations. In agriculture, tractors are used for various tasks such as plowing, tilling, planting, irrigation, and harvesting. They serve as the backbone of modern farming, significantly reducing labor costs and the time required to complete essential activities. Coupled with specialized implements, tractors can perform tasks with remarkable precision and consistency, resulting in increased crop yields and improved soil health. Power tillers, on the other hand, offer a more compact and affordable alternative to tractors, especially in regions where small-scale farming predominates. These machines are primarily used for tilling the soil, making them particularly valuable in cultivating land in small to medium-sized agricultural fields. Despite their smaller size and lower horsepower compared to tractors, power tillers are capable of performing various tasks such as weeding, leveling, and inter-row cultivation, providing farmers with a cost-effective solution for enhancing farm productivity. Both tractors and power tillers are indispensable in modern agriculture, as they provide the necessary power and efficiency to carry out a wide range of field operations. Moreover, these machines have found applications in construction, road development, and other industries, where they are used for tasks like hauling, digging, and leveling. With technological advancements, the capabilities

Solar energy is the energy emitted by the sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation. It is the most abundant, renewable, and sustainable energy resource available on Earth. Every hour, the Earth receives more energy from the sun than the entire human population consumes in a year. This makes solar energy a key candidate for solving the world’s growing energy needs while addressing environmental concerns. The solar energy reaching Earth can be harnessed and converted into useful forms of energy
Solar Photovoltaic Fencing
Solar photovoltaic fencing utilizes solar energy to provide an effective security solution, using high-voltage electric pulses to deter intruders or animals. The system operates by converting solar energy into electricity, which is then stored in a battery for later use. The battery powers an energizer that sends high-voltage pulses along the fence, creating an electric shock when an intruder touches the live wire.
System Components and Working
1. Solar Module: Converts sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity, which charges the battery.
2. Battery: Stores the energy generated by the solar panel. The 12V/100AH battery allows the system to operate even at night or during cloudy days.
3. Energizer: The energizer is the heart of the system, generating high-voltage pulses. It works by sending electrical pulses at regular intervals (usually one pulse per second) through the fence. The energizer is powered by the battery.

The One Nation One Subscription (ONOS) scheme is a cornerstone of India’s ambition to become a self reliant and developed nation by 2047 envisaged by Hon’ble Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi Ji. The initiative is a significant step to enhance access to scientific and academic resources across the country. This initiative can positively impact Indian journal ratings and boost subscriptions by addressing several challenges listed below:
• Increased Access to Global Resources
• Enhanced Research Quality 118 | Promoting Excellence in Agricultural Sciences
• Support for Smaller Institutions
• Boost to Indian Journals
• Fostering Interdisciplinary Collaboration
By bridging gaps in resource accessibility and improving research output, ONOS can play a pivotal role in elevating the status of Indian journals on global platforms. While evaluating Indian Journals of Agricultural and Allied Sciences, comprehensive and inclusive databases with many characteristics listed below should be adopted so as to ensure equal focus and benefit from international exposure:
• The database should have regional and multi-lingual journals with proper translation or abstracting, interdisciplinary research output, more and new journals/technical reports/official scientific documents/conference proceedings etc, open access for smaller journals to ensure readily accessible cutting-edge research in agriculture
• The database should provide more nuanced metrics that value realistic impact and localized research contributions considering immediate practical applications
• The database should include a wide range of journals across diverse disciplines, including agriculture, forestry, veterinary sciences, and environmental science with more inclusion of regional and specialized journals, providing access to a broader spectrum of agricultural research
• The database should emphasis on journals from developing regions, which often publish research addressing local agricultural challenges. This diversity helps in showcasing research contributions from regions/countries with significant agricultural economies
• The database of agriculture-related journals should overlap with other related fields viz., environmental science, biology, and social sciences, reflecting the interdisciplinary nature of agriculture. This helps researchers access a more comprehensive set of resources
• The database have detailed subject areas, allowing researchers to pinpoint agricultural science journals within relevant subfields like:

Fourth-generation biofuels, also known as advanced liquid biofuels, represent a progression of biofuel production leveraging advanced technologies (Chiaramonti & Maniatis, 2020). They incorporate the concept of “carbon capture and storage (CCS)” at both the feedstock and processing levels. Utilizing non-competitive feedstocks like algal biomass, cellulosic materials, and genetically engineered microorganisms, 4G biofuels ensure renewable and sustainable production without relying on arable land or food crops. The feedstock is designed not only to enhance processing efficiency but also to capture more carbon dioxide as the crop grows. Thermochemical processing methods are coupled with CCS technologies, which direct the generated carbon dioxide into geological formations or storage areas such as depleted oil fields or mineral storage as carbonates (International Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA], 2021). Fourth-generation biofuels have the potential to significantly reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and can even achieve carbon neutrality or negativity compared to previous generations of biofuels. This concept aligns with the idea of “Bioenergy with Carbon Storage (BECS)” (Demirbas, 2010). These advanced biofuels are currently in the development and experimental stages, encompassing various applications related to technology, processing, and feedstock. The primary feedstock for fourth-generation biofuels production consists of genetically engineered high-yielding biomass with low lignin and cellulose contents, addressing the challenges encountered in second-generation biofuels production. Alternatively, metabolically engineered crop plants with lower lignin, high oil contents facilitate enhanced carbon capture capabilities, and improved cultivation, harvesting, and fermentation processes and can significantly enhance biofuels production (Dutta et al., 2014).

“Sustainable Water Resources Management Strategies” embarks on a comprehensive exploration of the paramount challenges and essential solutions for safeguarding our planet’s most precious resource: water. This recognizes that water is not merely a commodity but the very lifeblood of ecosystems, a cornerstone of human health, a critical input for food production, and an indispensable element for industrial progress and societal well-being. Building upon a fundamental understanding of the intricate hydrological cycle, the distribution of global water resources, and the escalating anthropogenic pressures they face, we now turn our attention to the proactive and forwardthinking approaches that define sustainable water resources management. • In an era marked by increasing environmental consciousness and the stark realities of climate change, the traditional paradigms of water management are proving inadequate. Growing populations, rapid urbanization, and the expansion of industrial activities place unprecedented demands on both the quantity and quality of available water. Furthermore, the erratic and often extreme

Quality management in apparel production requires an integrated approach covering every stage from material sourcing to final inspection. Important areas include fabric inspection, spreading, cutting, in-process monitoring, finishing and evaluation of completed products. The chapter explains the Acceptance Quality Limit system through practical examples and introduces Statistical Process Control for monitoring manufacturing performance. It aims to help students, practitioners and researchers understand the multiple dimensions of apparel quality and apply appropriate inspection systems. Checklists, performance indicators and corrective measures support continual improvement. Because perceptions of quality depend on value, expected performance and durability, manufacturers must translate customer expectations into measurable specifications and consistently controlled production processes.

Microbial Based Formulations examines preparations produced through beneficial microorganisms, fermentation, and indigenous microbial resources. It covers Waste Decomposer, Effective Microorganisms, Fermented Plant Extract, EM-Bokashi, Indigenous Microorganisms, Fermented Plant Juice, Fermented Fruit Juice, Oriental Herbal Nutrient, and lactic acid bacteria. Water-soluble potassium, phosphoric acid, and calcium preparations, brown rice vinegar, loess powder, fermented seawater, and microorganism-enriched mixtures are also discussed. The chapter demonstrates how microbial activity and fermentation can transform locally available materials into agricultural inputs. Together, these formulations illustrate approaches for nutrient management, plant growth support, compost enrichment, and ecological farming using biologically mediated processes and farm-level resources. for preparation.

Introduction

Plant parasitic nematodes occur wherever plants grow. These nematodes are referred to as plant pathogenic when they cause crop losses by direct injury to roots, stems, leaves and seeds. A large number of plant parasitic nematodes have been found associated with fruit crops in all over India but pathogenisity has not been proved for all. Most of commonly occurring nematodes belong to genera Meloidogyne spp., Pratylenchus spp., Rotylenchulus spp., Hoplolaimus spp., Tylenchulus spp., Xiphinema spp., and Radopholus spp. etc. The nematodes damage the crops not only by feeding on plants but also by interacting with various other organisms like fungi, bacteria and viruses etc. Estimated overall average annual yield loss of the world’s major crops due to damage by plant parasitic nematodes was 12.3%. Estimated annual crop losses in India have been accounted to Rs. 242.1 billion. The crop losses due to nematode pests are not only in the form of reduced plant growth and yield but are also in the marketable quality of the produce.

Various studies have demonstrated that the cashew tree responds to the application of mineral nutrients, though the responses are significantly affected by plant age, the genotype utilized, the conditions of cultivation, soil and climate and of the crop management (Barros et al., 1984; Ghosh, 1990; Ximenes, 1995; Bezerra et al., 1999; Crisóstomo et al., 2005). The crop develops well under semi-arid conditions, in which the problems associated with water availability and salt excess in the root environment are common. These two factors interfere with the acquisition of nutrients, in that the levels of nutrients in the plants are affected both by direct effects on absorption and transportation processes and by indirect effects associated with a reduction of growth of the various plant organs including the root system. The effect of salinity on plant nutrition depends on the types of salts that predominate in the cultivation environment which can result in a deficiency of essential nutrients and an excess of toxic ions. These changes under salt stress are accompanied by a loss of structural and functional integrity of the cellular membranes, a reduction in activity of various vital enzymes, and a diminished capacity of the roots to absorb nutrients (Zhu, 2001). On the other hand, water deficit reduces the extraction of nutrients from the soil, limiting the solubilization of nutrients in the root environment and altering the morphology of the root system (Kramer and Boyer, 1995). It should be added that the effects of excess salt and water deficit depend on various factors, including the species under study and the stage of development at which the plants are submitted to these.

Abstract

India is the prevalent prime producer of moringa [drumstick] with an annual production of 2.2 million tonnes of tender fruits from an area of 38,000 ha. Among the states, Andhra Pradesh leads in both area and production [15,665 ha] followed by Karnataka [10,280 ha] and Tamil Nadu [7,408 ha]. In other states, it occupies an area of 4,613 ha. Tamil Nadu is the pioneering state in so much as it has varied genotypes from diversified geographical areas, as well as introductions from Sir Lanka. Farmers found that growing moringa crops during summer season was remunerative. Thus, moringa gained a foothold as a summer vegetable. Its unique flavour and aroma became very popular. For South Indian any meal without moringa and pulses is considered incomplete. The demand for the moringa pod also increased due to increased urban settlements and migration of people to urban colonies. Based on the significance of moringa in the human diet this study might more viable with the specific objectives of to assessing the marketing strategies for promotion Periyakulam annual moringa seeds in Tamil Nadu.

Curry leaf, Murraya koenigii (Linn.) is one of the most important plants exclusively known for its culinary and medicinal value. Leaves of the plant are widely used for flavouring food in Indian cookery. Leaves are also used in many Indian Ayurvedic and Unani prescriptions (Joseph and Peter, 1985). The whole plant including leaves, stems, flower, fruits and roots are used as tonic, stimulant, anti-flatulent, anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant (Khan et al., 1997) and anti-carcinogenic (Khanum et al., 2000). The plant is also used in curing digestive disorder, kidney disorder, burns and bruises, improving animal fertility, increasing shelf life of meat products, prevention of premature graying of hair and strengthening gums and teeths (Tara and Sharma, 2010). The plant is most widespread all over India and in some places it is grown wild. 

Shoot borer: Conogethes punctiferalis: Pyraustidae

The main damage done by the caterpillar of this pest is to bore holes in the pseudostem and to plug it with excreta, causing dead hearts. Larva is pale greenish with pinkish tinge and dark head and has fine hairs on the body with a pro thoracic shield. Adult is a medium sized moth, pale yellowish with small black spots on the fore and hind wings.

Management involves spraying dimethoate or malathion 1.5 ml/lit or phosphamidon 0.75 ml/lit of water. This is mainly intended to manage the adults flying in the crop canopy and the first instar caterpillars that are seen on the outside of the plants and before thsy enter the pseudostem. The spray has to be given at the very first spotting of dead haearts.

Of the various microorganisms present in and around roots, VAM fungi occupy unique ecological position as they are partly inside and partly outside the host. Their internal phase encounters competition and antagonism from other beneficial symbiotic microbes while their external phase faces competition and antagonism from beneficial non-symbiotic microbes present around the roots. Since they have an ensured source of nutrients from the host, they have comparatively better conditions for their growth and may exert greater effect on plants with other symbiotic and non-symbiotic microbes in and around their roots. It has been pointed out that investigations are needed on the interactions between VAM fungi and these beneficial microbes, and their effect on growth and productivity in plants. A bulk of information has been collected related to this aspect; however, authentic generalization has not been possible as yet. Following description gives an account of the work done by Indian mycorrhizasts on the interactions between VAM fungi and other beneficial symbiotic/non-symbiotic microbes in and around the roots.

Abstract

The potato research in India was started systematically after the establishment of Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI) in 1949. Forty-one potato varieties having attributes of early, medium and late maturity vis-à-vis resistance to various biotic and abiotic stresses have already been developed indigenously for varied agro-ecoregions in the hills and sub-tropical plains. After the establishment of CPRI, collection of potato germplasm was made mandatory. Presently there are over 2,700 accessions including 133 wild species (related to potato) in the germplasm collection of CPRI. Despite the large collection of potato germplasm at the institute the genetic base of all 41 Indian potato varieties released so far can be traced to only about 50 parents and most of these represent tetraploid potato cultivars while only a few of the exotic diploid wild species have been used in improvement of potato varieties in India. Under utilization of wild species could be mainly due to the pre- and post zygotic crossability barriers inherent in many species of genus solanum. Nevertheless, about seven wild species have been used in potato breeding for introgression of resistance genes for various biotic and abiotic stresses in the improved Indian potato varieties.

Introduction
 
The major challenges in 21^st century are food security, environmental quality and soil health. Besides, shrinking land holdings and increasing cost of inputs in India merit adoption of scientific use of plant nutrient for higher crop productivity. The soil fertility and fertilizer use project initiated in 1953 following a study by Stewart in 1947 which was the first systematic attempt in India to relate the knowledge of the soils to the judicious use of chemical fertilizers. The soil testing programme was started in India during the year 1955-56 with the setting up of 16 soil testing laboratories under the Indo-US Operational Agreement for “Determination of Soil Fertility and Fertilizer Use”. In 1965, five of the existing laboratories were strengthened and nine new laboratories were established to serve the Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) in selected districts.