eChapters

Organizations Indebtedness Towards Society

The organizations in the present world operate as an open system by having ongoing interactions with the society for their existence and effective functioning. There is an interdependence between corporations and societies and as such, company’s activities have a direct impact on the communities with which they work.  As a part of such interactions, the organizations use valuable resources of the society, for producing goods and services, which are exchanged with the customers for a profit margin. Due to these exchanges, the business organizations take away the profits reflecting the debt they owe to the society and the world.

Introduction

Survey sampling is a method of drawing inference about the characteristics of a population by securing a sample. Sample survey techniques are extensively used by government bodies throughout the world and researchers for assessing, for planning and for projection future economy.In a sample survey, the final step of the analysis and drawing inferences from a sample to a population is a very vital and fascinating issue. Since the results of the survey are the basis for policy making, it is the most essential part of the sample survey and should be handled carefully.The object of designing a sample survey is to minimize the error in the final estimates. Any survey involving data collection and analysis of the data is subject to a variety of errors. The errors may be classified into two groups viz., (i) non-sampling errors (ii) sampling errors.

Agriculture occupies a significant place in the economy of India. It contributes nearly 20% to the Gross Domestic Product [GDP] and provides employment to around two-thirds of nation’s population Agricultural commodity exports account for nearly 20 per cent of the total export earnings of the country. The agricultural produce sector has been one of the most important components of Indian economy. Considerable progress has since been achieved in scaling new heights in the production of foodgrains, commercial crops like cotton, sugarcane, tea etc., fruits, vegetables and milk. The increasing trend of agricultural production has brought, in its wake, new challenges in terms of finding market for the marketed surplus. There is also pressure from all segments of agricultural economy to respond to the challenges and opportunities that the global markets offer in the liberalized trade regime. To benefit the farming community from the new global market access opportunities, the internal agricultural marketing system in the country also needs to be integrated and strengthened. In particular the market system has to be revitalized to a) provide incentives to farmer to produce more; b) convey the changing needs of the consumers to the producers to enable production r burning; c) foster true competition among the market players and d) to enhance the share of farmers in the ultimate price of his agricultural produce.

Price mechanism is an economic term that refers to the buyers and sellers who negotiate prices of goods or services depending on demand and supply. A price mechanism or market-based mechanism refers to a wide variety of ways to match up buyers and sellers through price rationing.An example of a price mechanism uses announced bid and ask prices. Generally speaking, when two parties wish to engage in a trade, the purchaser will announce a price he is willing to pay (the bid price) and seller will announce a price he is willing to accept (the ask price).

Sugar originated from the Arabic word “sharkara” and is derived from the sanskrit world “sharkara”. Sugar is an important part of the daily diet and  forming a class of edible substances which includes  sucrose, lactose, and fructose. It provides the human body with requisite carbohydrates and is basically extracted from sugar cane and sugar beet.  Found in fruits, honey, sorghum, sugar maple and in several other sources, it is the main ingredient of candy which is loved by children the world over. Yet, it has been  blamed for causing tooth decay and excess consumption of sugar has been associated with a host of ailments like diabetes, obesity, weight gain, depression, joint pain, fatigue and insulin resistance and even cancer.

Among fresh vegetables, onion, tomato and mushroom are reported to be highly export competitive. India ranks first in the world accounting for around 21 per cent of the world area, planted to onion. Globally, the country occupies the second position, after China, in onion production with a production share of around 14 per cent. Productivity of onion is low at around 11.4 metric ton/ha, which is significantly lower than the world average of 17.3 metric ton/ha. Besides India and China, the other major onion-producing countries are Turkey, Pakistan, Iran, Japan, Brazil, United States of America and Spain. It is produced for both domestic consumption as well as exports. India produces all varieties of onion - pink, red, yellow and white, big or small.

Potato is a major food crop, grown in more than 100 countries in the world and it is one of the major commercial crops grown in India. India ranks third by contributing around 7.5% to the world’s production. During 2006-07, 27 million tonnes was produced in an area of about 1.5 million ha. However, potato consumption per capita in India (14.8 kg/head/year) is one of the lowest in the world and hardly one per cent of the potato is processed.

Setting price is a critical component of successful marketing. Vegetable growers have a greater level of control than most other growers over marketable yields, input costs and price. The closer a grower is to the consumer, the more control over price the grower has. Buyers perceive price to represent value of the product. Underpricing, or pricing too low, gives the perception that the product is inferior, while setting the price too high often drives customers away. Many growers make the mistake of setting the price too low at the beginning of the marketing season when competition is less and demand is strong and then find it difficult to increase price later in the season. Before setting price, gauge the level of competition and the consumer demand for your product. For example, organic produce may have a stronger demand in urban areas, so prices can be set at a higher level. Also, early-season produce, such as tomatoes, has high demand with little competition in most markets, resulting in a higher price range.

Basmati Rice

Basmati Rice is a simple grain, yet throughout history it has been on royal menus of various cultures as the main dish. From the pilav of Turkey, polou of Persia, pilafs of the Steppes, the isotos and paellas of the Mediterranean, to the pulau of India it has been served to great sultans, maharajahs, shahs and emperors. Spices, nuts, dried fruits, vegetables and herbs are a natural for Basmati rice. Basmati rice transforms rice dishes into extraordinary meals. Also known as the “Queen of Rice”, this highly aromatic grain that is long and elegantly thin, has originated from Vasumati which means earth recognized by its fragrance. The full exposition of the word is from Hindi. Bas originating from Prakrit Vas which has a sanskrit root- Vasay connoting aroma; and mati from mayup meaning ingrained from the origin. Common usage has changed Vas to Bas while joining bas and mayup the latter changed to mati.. Thus the word Basmati originated.

Pulses are important food crops due to their high protein and essential amino acid content. Pulses are used as food and animal feed. India is the world’s largest producer, importer and consumer of pulses. Many exporting countries are dependent on India for marketing their pulses. Even though India is the world’s largest producer and consumer of pulses still there is a gap of 2-3 million tonnes between the production and consumption of pulses in the country and the gap is met through imports.

Random workplace surveys in the UK have proven that the staff can get pretty steamed up over hot drinks. Nine years ago, London Underground staff, in fact, threatened to go on strike when kettles were introduced to replace tea urns. Their grouse: it will make them late for shifts. When the credit crunch dried up the free watering holes in many companies, a survey by uSwitchforbusiness.com in 2010 claimed that trouble was brewing. It warned: "Cutting out the free cuppas may add to the bottom line, but there may be a far greater price to be paid in staff morale." Tea or coffee - free or not - is the preferred poison at work.

Prices of major spices such as chillies, jeera, turmeric and cardamom are being driven to the ground by higher production, poor export earnings and a lack of working capital with traders to hold the stocks. Last December, all these spices were at record highs. With the prices ruling high last year, the acreage of most of the spices has increased this year, indicating excess production. The chilli acreage has increased by 15% to 20% while the land under jeera crop is estimated to have gone up by over 26%. The turmeric production is heading for a historic high of 82 lakh bags (each bag of 70 kg) and cardamom is having a bumper harvest.

Cotton, the traditional and important commercial crop has been in cultivation in India for more than five thousand years. Though synthetic / man-made fibre has made inroads, cotton deserves the prime position not only in India but also in the world. The Northern hemisphere accounts for more than 90% of the total world production. Whereas countries like China, US and India together account for 50% of the production in the world. In India, cotton farming provides livelihood for over 4 million farm families. Various allied activities like ginning, spinning, weaving, textile processing, garment manufacturing, marketing etc., provide employment to several million people.

Fats and oils are one of the five essential ingredients of human diet. The four others are protein, carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins. In balanced diet, the requirement of oils and fats per person per day is around 35 gm. In India, the major source of oils and fats is of vegetable origin; butter from animal milk also serves as a fat, though. In the nine major oilseeds, which are groundnut, rapseed /mustered seed, soya been, seasam seeds, sun flower seed niger seed, castor seed and linseed, out of these   seven are essentially edible. Among these seven, by far the most important are groundnut,  rapeseed/mustard seed, and soya bean. These three edible oilseeds account for a little over 80% of-the-total production of nine oilseeds, which include even two non-edible oilseeds, namely castor seed and linseed. As a matter of fact, edible oilseeds as such contribute nearly 95% to the total production of all cultivated oilseeds together.

The first use of rubber was by the Olmecs, who centuries later passed on the knowledge of natural latex from the Hevea tree in 1600 BC to the ancient Mayans. They boiled the harvested latex to make a ball for a Mesoamerican ballgame.

Liquid milk is the cheapest form of milk whereas value added products like yoghurt and paneer, already popular in India are ways to earn a higher income with some raw materials. Farms should focus on dairy herd improvement, herd management etc. Milk and dairy products are always very helpful to farmers for a constant source of income besides their regular farm products. They do not required to expend extra for their feeding if the number of cattle are less. With slight extra care they can earn enough to meet their daily expenses. Cows, buffalo, all the milk giving animals are easy to care.

All over the world, when people get richer their life style change and they consume more animal protein, especially meat. We may add value by good genetics and know how in farm and feed management. There would be huge demand for poultry products and meat in coming years in India as per capita income of middle class people is gradually increasing and for that production of meat and meat products is required to be increased to meet the demand. Meat of goat, buffalo chicken are generally sold in India. Marketing of meat and meat products, chicken and poultry products such as eggs are the main challenges for the new farmers as there is no ready market in India. Recently there is huge demand of Chicken in Northern India. The initial problem faced by farmers is getting the special chicken feed for the different age groups. There is no well equipped dedicated slaughter house available in every city. New technology for animal slaughter is required so that all parts of animal are used properly without losing valuable protein. The idea should be to use innovated technology to optimize the profits in the chain.

Food prices have risen 6% in the last six months. But it is expected to rise further as expensive energy, squeezed supplies and volatile weather take a combined toll. The biggest factor pushing prices is the cost of producing and marketing crops. Several factors will make farming more expensive in the coming months. The first variable is weather. Preliminary forecasts by a few foreign and private Indian meteorologists say India could have a below-normal monsoon because a weather phenomenon called El Nino is warming the Pacific Ocean. El Nino usually affects monsoon winds headed for India. Forecasters say monsoon might arrive on time but could falter during August-September, especially in the north.

Abstract

Radon being the radioactive daughter product of Uranium; the interrelationship between U and Rn has been established in the present study. It is found that Radon coexist with Uranium in the region. A total of 61 samples were collected spatially from hand pumps and bore wells of the study area. Major ions such as Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, F^-, Cl^-, HCO^3-, NO^3-, H₄SiO₄,PO₄- and SO₄^2- and U, Rn were analysed. The lithological influence of U and Radon occurrence is also highlighted. Hard rocks especially Granites are the source for both U and Rn in the study area whereas the lack of correlation exist between U and Rn in sedimentary terrain can be attributed to difference in flow conditions and chemical properties of these elements. 

Key words: Radon, Uranium, Granite, Ground water, Source.
 

Abstract

Quality of water is affected by natural and man induced contamination to groundwater system. Area chosen for study has gained its own importance due to the location of two lignite mines and a Thermal power plant in operation. Extensive large scale pumping of water is done for lignite mining. The mine drainage and drainage from thermal power plant along with agricultural return flow from lignite charged waters increases the severity of problem. In order to achieve a panacea for the above-mentioned situation, the study has incorporated and integrated in all related factors to get a meaningful interpretation for groundwater quality and quantity management in and around Neyveli area. The frequent failure of monsoon has added to the existing problem of over exploitation. To attain a panacea for water chemistry groundwater samples were collected for four different seasons. Higher EC and TDS values are observed in Southeast and Southwest part of the study area. In Southwest monsoon and Summer seasons HCO₃Cl dominates the anions, with few representations for SO₄. In Northeast monsoon and Post monsoon season Na + K – Ca + Mg is the dominant. Thermodynamic, studies reveal that groundwater of the region are stable with Kaolinite stability field in all the silicate systems. Bicarbonates derived from silicate mineral weathering are noted in the NW, Northern and in the mining region. These regions are located in the NW and NE part of the study area. Comparison of water quality to standards shows that the water can be used for drinking and for irrigation purposes except in few locations.

Abstract

In semiarid climates, a significant component of recharge to basin aquifers occurs along the mountain front. In this scenario Mountain Front Recharge study has been carried along the foothills of Courtallam ,Tamil Nadu. A total of 53 groundwater samples were collected along the foothills and measured for major cations and anions using standard procedure. Saturation index (SI) of carbonate minerals like Aragonite,Magnesite, Calcite and Dolomite,LogpCO₂ and Ionic strength obtained from WATEQ4F output. pH plays a significant role in the saturation index of the minerals. Most of the Carbonate minerals shows undersaturation  with the pH range 7.5. Positive relationship between SI and HCO₃ is noticed. A sharp increase of pCO₂ values towards the foothills region suggests that the groundwater has been recharged by, acquiring longer flow path during its infiltration into deeper level near foot hill region. The SI of these carbonate minerals was spatially distributed to identify the areas of higher SI and also it is compared with the water level fluctuation to understand the recharge process along the foothill region as well as riparian zone.

Abstract

The geochemical signature and vulnerability of groundwater of the East Coastal aquifers of  India from Pondicherry to Nagapattinam were determined. The coastal aquifers are fragile and this situation becomes more intense in aquifer systems like that of the Pondicherry to Nagapattinam region. A total of 136 water samples were collected during pre and post monsoon of 2008 and 2009 respectively. Out of which 45 samples for each pre and post monsoon from shallow groundwater and 23 samples for each pre and post monsoon from deeper groundwater.. The samples collected were analysed for major, minor cations and anions. Selected samples were also analysed for stable isotopes (d¹⁸O and dD). The analysed samples were studied for; their utility for different purpose, the nature of the geochemical classification, their variations in ion ratios, extent of sea water intrusion and the percentage of mixing, The study reveals that chief mechanism controlling shallow groundwater is the salts precipitated in the pore spaces during the Pre monsoon were leached and dissolved during the subsequent monsoon apart from sea water intrusion. Southern part of the study area  is more vulnerable than the Northern part of the study area.

Abstract

A total of 30 groundwater samples were collected in four different seasons (Pre Monsoon, South West Monsoon, North East Monsoon and Post Monsoon) from the coastal aquifers of Kalpakkam region of Tamilnadu. The samples were collected covering the seasonal and lithological variations to infer the influence of natural geochemical processes and anthropogenic sources on the groundwater chemistry. The collected samples were analysed for the parameters like EC, pH and Major ions. The saturation index of silicates and carbonates shows that state of saturation to over saturation, but the sulphate minerals is dominantly under saturated. In the inverse modeling three models are obtained using PHREEQC and the error percentage is noted as 7.45%.

Abstract

Deduction of overindulgence fluoride (F)  from the water has been endeavor by numerous investigators by using different materials both natural and artificial. The objective of this paper was to attempt the fluoride removal by using the locally available natural materials such as red soil, untreated charcoal, local powdered brick, fly-ash from Neyveli (thermal power plant) and mineral serpentine were used, adopting column method. Maximum defluoridation occurs immediately after the experiment has started. The morality of fluoride removed per gram is more in red soil when compared to the other materials. Variation of fluoride removal with time was studied after the erection of the column /unit, the defluoridation setup was then connected to the public water supply from the overhead tank of 50,000L capacity. Higher F removal was noted when flow rate was lesser. An attempt on the regeneration of the fluoride adsorbed soil was also made.

Abstract

Coastal aquifers are the sources of freshwater which are being over extracted due to increase in population, agriculture and industrial activities. This over exploitation has resulted in decline in groundwater level and intrusion of sea water into the coastal aquifers making it unfit for human utilities. An attempt has been made in the coastal tracts of Pondicherry region using Electrical resistivity imaging. The survey has been attempted in six locations spread thought the study area and the interpretation has been attempted by RES2DINV software. The profile length attempted was between 150 to 300 m with electrode spacings between 5 to 10 m. The apparent resistivity ranges between 0.1 to 1183 & ohm. Sea water intrusion was prominent along the northern parts of the study area and lower resistivity isolated in kirumambakkam has been interpreted as salinity due to the presence of clay minerals. In nallavadu saline intrusion has been identified at shallow depth.

Abstract

A study on the Subsurface groundwater discharge (SGD) in the coastal Cuddalore region of south east India has been carried out. Measurement of surface water Radon, Water level, Electrical Conductivity (EC) and pH for a total of twenty four hours, by hourly interval the measurement has been calculated and promote correlated with tidal values calculated by WX Tide 32 software. The SGD measurements were made by using a modified seepage meter. The study reveals a match with water level variation and tide with minor variation due to influx of surface water. Saline discharges, fresh groundwater discharges and surface water mixing processes were identified along the coast. Lower SGD (37.24 – 79.16 cm/day) were observed during fresh groundwater discharge.

Abstract

A study on colloids in groundwater and its relationship with the geochemical parameters is reasonably essential because of its facilitating nature to transport radionuclides in groundwater. Colloid sampling has been carried out in the coastal aquifers of southeast coast of India. Two different bore wells were selected based on the distance from the coast to collect groundwater samples. On the basis of the result achieved from this study, a reliable representation is emerging. The values of pH and EC are governed by the different size fraction of colloids. In this study, the relation between different size fractions of groundwater colloids and its pH, TDS and EC were carried out. These parameters were analyzed in the lab and its influence with four fractions of colloid like 1.2, 0.8, 0.45 and 0.22 µm have been discovered by smooth scatter plot. The accumulation of particles weighting by normal weighing instrument. There is an higher accumulation of particles found in Kalpakkam than Anupuram in all the size fractions. For separation of particles high frequency pressure was used by ultrasonic cleaner had been carried out. This method is very simple and more reasonable than any other methods.

Abstract

In Gadilam river basin, groundwater is found in both hard rock and sedimentary terrain and is the most important source of rural/urban drinking water supply. Gadilam river basin has gained its importance due to the presence of Neyveli Lignite open cast mine (NLC), group of industrial estate (SIPCOT), extensive depressurization of Cuddalore aquifer and boreholes of New Veeranam Scheme (NVS) in the downstream of the basin. A total of 178 water samples were collected in four different seasons at various lithologies. The collected samples were analyzed for various physico-chemical parameters using standard procedures. Geochemical indicators of groundwater were used to identify the chemical processes that control hydrogeochemsitry. Interpretation of hydrogeochemical data suggests that leaching of ions followed by weathering and anthropogenic impact controls the chemistry of the groundwater. Isotopic study reveals that recharge from meteoric source in sedimentary terrain and rock water interaction with significant evaporation prevails in hard rock region. This thorough understanding helps us to make judicial usage and to maintain the quality of this commodity.

Abstract

The development and management of fresh groundwater resources in coastal aquifers are seriously constrained by the impact of seawater intrusion. The coastal aquifers are fragile and this situation becomes more intense like that of the coastal Cuddalore region. The geochemical signature of groundwater of Cuddalore coast was studied for Pre Monsoon, Southwest, North east and Post Monsoon seasons by collecting total of 64 groundwater samples in each season. The collected samples from were analysed for physical parameters, such as electrical conductivity (EC), pH and major ion concentrations, such as Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, HCO₃, PO₄ and SO₄. Interpretation of analytical data shows the predominance of  Na–Cl type   in PRM and Ca- Mg-Cl type  is the dominant facies during POM. The Chaddas evaluation diagram shows that the hydrogeochemical evaluation plot for PRM samples fall in  Na-Cl type. The ratios of Na/Cl and Cl/HCO₃ is also enumerated the fact that the most of the samples from PRM and few samples from other seasons also indicates dominance of salt water intrusion.

Abstract

Aquifers are usually composed of permeable layers that can ways a considerable amount of groundwater. Usually, aquifer units are correlated through the concept of lithostratigraphy. For low-permeable aquifers, it is difficult to define the spatial distribution of hydrogeological units, and this study attempts to use geochemical methods to identify the groundwater flow paths in an area of Southeast coast of Tamil Nadu, India. Multiple geochemical analyses, including groundwater chemistry; stable isotopic compositions of d¹⁸O and 8D contents were performed.  Spatial distribution of d¹⁸O, dD, Cl-/HCO-₃ show that northeastern part of the study area seriously affected by seawater intrusion. The highly permeable aquifers at the east coastal region are characterized by high hydraulic conductivity as compared with other regions of the study area. Hydrogeochemical characteristics based on bivariate diagrams of major and minor ions show that changes in the chemical composition of groundwater are mainly controlled by the salinization process followed by cation-exchange reactions.

Abstract

Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) consisting of water soluble organic molecules and by products of organic decomposition and chemical degradation processes, constitutes a critical link in carbon and nutrient cycles. The quality, or chemical and physical character, of DOC affects the degree to which it is transformed by biological and chemical processes. The significance of DOC was studied in layered coastal aquifers of the Pondicherry region during four different seasons. Pondicherry region has varied geological set up ranging from Cretaceous to Recent formations. A total of 52 groundwater samples were collected from various aquifers like Alluvium, Tertiary(Upper Cuddalore, Lower Cuddalore) and Cretaceous for two different seasons of pre- monsoon(PRM), and post-monsoon (POM). The samples were analyzed for major ions and DOC. The range of DOC in the study area is 0-14 mg/l. Very high DOC concentrations were measured during PRM in the samples from Alluvium and Lower Cuddalore Formation. The samples of these formations were compared with pH, Ionic strength, log pCO₂ and carbonate minerals concentration. The alluvial aquifer shows that pH governed dissolution along the coastal tracts and in Upper Cuddalore formation it’s based on interaction between aquifer matrix and groundwater.

Abstract

Groundwater is most favored as a source of drinking water in all over world. It is often thought to be cleaner and easier to treat when compared with surface water and as a result, many wells have been sunk. Uranium and other radionuclides in water can lead to health problems if present in higher concentrations. In order to study the behavior and to understand the influence of lithology in groundwater of Madurai district, a study was conducted by collecting a total of 216 samples of different seasons (Premonsoon, South west monsoon, Northeast monsoon and Post monsoon) with respect to lithology and the number of samples was depending upon their spatial coverage in the study area. The groundwater samples were analysed for U, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, HCO₃^-, Cl^-, SO₄^2-, PO₄^3-, NO₃^-, F^-, H₄SiO₄, pH, EC, TDS. It was identified that the higher concentration of Uranium (156 ppb) were noted in the northern part of the study area. They are chiefly restricted to the Granitic terrain and nearby Charnockitic regions. The weathering process induces the release of higher U ions from the granitic terrain and the evaporated recharge water from the tank /reservoir  also induces the release of U ions from the rock matrix, it may also be due to fertilizer enriched agricultural return flows. The key source for all these processes and hydrogeochemical processes is identified to be lithology which inturn controls all the other processes in the study area.

Abstract

Amongst all types of major land-use change, extending irrigated agriculture using a surface-water source has the greatest influence on groundwater – both significantly increasing recharge and changing water quality as excess irrigation water infiltrates into shallow aquifers. Hence, in order to understand the impact of the landuse on the groundwater system the study has been aimed to understand the process by adopting geophysical, geochemical and microbial analysis of groundwater samples. The study has been conducted in Chidambaram taluk, with a total area of 92.51Sq.km. A total of 39 groundwater samples were collected for the analysis of major cation and anion along with the microbial analysis, like Total Coliform, Total Viable Counts, Fecal coliforms, Vibrio cholera and Total Streptococci. The geochemical studies reveal that there is no correlation between these parameters and the microbial population. The migration of the water from the elevated regions (urban region) is witnessed and the concentration of the microbial population is higher in these regions except in the southern region which has impermeable clay and this arrest the movement of water.

Abstract

Geochemical processes occurring within the groundwater and reactions with aquifer minerals have a profound effect on water quality. Hydrogeochemical composition of groundwater can also be indicative of its origin and history of passage through underground materials which water has been in contact. Assessing groundwater quality and developing strategies to protect aquifers from contamination are necessary aspects for proper planning and designing water resources. Anthropogenic activities like explosion of population, industrial growth, inputs of fertilizer, pesticides, and irrigation has been a crucial factor for determining the quality of groundwater. In this scenario, 43 groundwater samples were collected from the Dindigul district of Tamilnadu, a Hard rock terrain. The samples wereanalyzed for major cations and anions along with heavy metals to derive the different quality parameters and to obtain the pollution indices of different samples. This study focuses to find out the spatial relationship between the analyzed fluoride concentration in groundwater and pollution indices derived from the heavy metal concentration in the groundwater of the study area and their variation with respect to season.

Abstract

The Indian western Himalayas have wide variation in altitude, climate, soils, flora and fauna and socio-economic features. Livelihood options are limited due to small and fragmented holdings and inherent hill and mountain specificities. However, the physiographic and agro-climatic variability also offer opportunities of cultivating wide variety of profitable traditional and market oriented crops for exploiting niche advantage. Non-timber forest products play a vital role for livelihood security and demand that initiatives at local and governmental level are taken to develop and popularize technologies for collecting, processing and value adding to these products for commercial exploitation. Research and self help institutions are important in this context but strong regulatory policy framework is equally important. Further, need based and location specific trainings and demonstrations need to be organized to fill the knowledge void especially in traditional activities and emerging vocational enterprises. The national and international business concerns, engaged in exploiting natural resources such as hydro power and calcareous and limestone deposits should also engage more meaningfully in this task, under their corporate social responsibility (CSR) Livelihood generating scheme such as MNREGS should be extended to the non-conventional activities like weed eradication, management of wild (monkeys) and stray (cattle) animals that threaten livelihood security.

Abstract
The western Himalayan region is rich in a variety of natural resources owing to the existence of a range of biophysical and climatic interactions. Mountain inhabitants have been living in harmony with these natural resources for generations to meet their subsistence needs out of these resources.  However, recent decades have witnessed a substantial imbalance between man and nature that has adversely affected the livelihood of native people. Several anthropogenic and natural factors are responsible for this change. Furthermore, the exposure of mountain societies to outside world has opened up a number of new livelihood options based on both natural resources and other forms of human capital. The local people have adopted some livelihood practices suiting to the changed conditions at the expense of the age-old agri-silvi-pastoral mode of livelihood. There is an emerging challenge for policy makers and planners to make developmental interventions and tailor made livelihood options suiting to the changed scenario. Several government and non-government organizations and other agencies initiated a number of programmes that focus on natural resource management vis-à-vis livelihood improvement in the region. However, for want of cause and effect analysis many of these programmes are not yielding the desired results. This chapter provides an overview of the traditionally important livelihood practices of the western Himalayan region and some of the emerging livelihood supporting activities based on natural resources of the region. A case study of Bhimtal lake catchment where transformation of traditional livelihood has taken place at a rapid pace due to the influence of tourism and urbanization has also been included to highlight the emerging scenario. The paper suggests some useful policy options for planning livelihoods in the western Himalayan region of the country.

Abstract

The livelihood security of hill people is closely associated with hydrology of the region. The Himalayas possesses one of the largest reserve resources of freshwater in the form of snow and ice, thereby supporting livelihoods of millions of people. The physiographic constraints of the region restrict irrigation development with the result that, majority of cultivated area remains rainfed. Climate change is also a serious issue concerning hill economy. Its impact on livelihood security is dictated, among other things, through change in hydrology. In addition to highlighting hydrological issues, suggestions are offered on how to deal with water related issues to livelihood enlargement and protection.

Abstract

The paper presents findings of a field study to determine the agricultural and socio-economic impact of climate change on the mountain farmers’ apple economy. The study investigates the positive and negative effects of climate change on mountain farmers’ economy. It revealed how mountain farmers in a valley were forced to abandon apple farming which destroyed their farm economy and at the same time how same climate change brought new economic opportunities. The study findings also indicate that opportunities brought by climate change seem to have a time scale. This research attempts to piece together evidence and aims to enhance our understanding of climate change impacts as observed by farming communities at very local levels. The growing threat of global warming and its effects and prevailing obscurities about the future of agriculture are all addressed in this investigation.

Abstract

Hills and mountains are an important agro-ecosystem, which have lagged  behind the plains in respect of agricultural development. The plains of India witnessed green revolution followed by white, yellow and blue revolutions, which not only increased production and productivity of food crops but helped in bringing about overall development that led to livelihood security in the rural India. The hills, however, remained technologically backward resulting in low agricultural productivity, which brought about livelihood insecurity in these areas. And this has happened despite the fact that a large number of top class institutions of the CSIR, ICAR, ICFRE, Atomic Energy 
Commission, GSI and BSI along with State Agricultural Universities have been present (in the region) and were engaged in developing technology relevant to agriculture and allied areas. However, these technologies did not reach to the end user i.e. the hill farmer for a variety of reasons. Therefore, technology development and dissemination have been accorded high priority by the state governments.

Abstract

Livelihood of ~80% of rural inhabitants depends upon agriculture that relies upon the prevailing environmental conditions such as water availability and temperature. If unfavorable to the crops, these conditions would impact production and productivity leading to food-insecurity. Various abiotic stresses are generated due to the physiography that includes altitude, topography, edaphic factors, water availability and ecosystem degradation. In spite of the environmental limitations, crops have survived suggesting operation of relevant adaptive mechanisms in the native species. Indeed, novel genetic mechanisms were present and these could be utilized to improve the plant productivity under stress conditions. Also there are issues on the management of abiotic stresses, which need to be addressed. The chapter presents framework and policies on sustaining agriculture production under the situations of abiotic stress to ensure production sustainability by protecting livelihood of the inhabitants. Western Himalaya was deliberately chosen as the focus for discussion.

Abstract

Over the years, global climate change has negatively impacted the resources of western Himalayan region and the diversity of floral wealth has been endangered. The endangered livelihoods of agriculture based sector call for incorporating stress resistance by sustained effort that includes resort to infusion of new technologies. Biotechnology offers possible solutions to many of the intractable problems. Development and commercialization of transgenic crops have witnessed phenomenal growth in recent years. An array of traits viz. insect pest resistance, herbicide tolerance, abiotic stress tolerance, augmentation of nutritional qualities etc. have been targeted and successfully modified through plant genetic engineering. The global area of transgenic crops has seen a tremendous increase to attain 148 million hectares in 2010. Progress in understanding plant genome structure and function by high throughput characterization of genome, transcriptome, proteome and metabolome is providing new opportunities to deal with complex traits that result from interactions of a large number of genes. The other significant application of biotechnology in crop improvement has been “Marker Assisted Selection” (MAS). Development and integration of DNA based markers in the selection process has empowered the breeder to identify the desired genotypes without any interference of environmental effect or tissue specificity of expression. Cultivation of MAS derived crop varieties in the country bears testimony to the success of this technology.

Abstract

Invasion of field crops, orchards and waste-lands by weeds is a matter of concern for farmers and foresters because of the drag they inflict on productivity and the increase in cost of production involved in weed control. Science-based technologies offer workable and reliable recourse to minimizing and/or eliminating these losses to promote healthier and rewarding livelihoods. While studies have been conducted to combat brush-weed in waste-land and plantations, little work has been done on such aspects as biological control of weeds, development of herbicide resistance in weeds, and allelopathic interface of crops and weeds. In this chapter, attempt is made to assess the economics of weed management in major crops. Aspects of R&D on weed management that should be addressed for safeguarding yield in the future are highlighted with particular reference to situation in western Himalaya.

Abstract

Extreme weather conditions often cause considerable damage. Much of this damage can be mitigated if people are better prepared for impending disasters. Therefore, public authorities and private enterprises have been investing in Early Warning Systems (EWS). Environmental degradation and destruction of natural resources has been faced by humans and other organisms for hundreds of years. Some of these incidences have been caused by natural climatic and geologic processes and others by human activities. These natural disasters have been increasing over time due to factors such as urbanization, population growth, destruction of natural environment and climatic change. Biogenic and anthropogenic related environmental and natural resources degradation has direct economic and health impacts on affected regions. Land and water degradation as well as disasters such as floods and droughts have led to famine, hunger, disease, death and created many other problems. It is necessary, therefore, to keep focused on the ultimate goal of reducing disasters by all possible means. India must invest generously on infrastructure and resources for preparation of early warning systems and disaster preparedness.

Abstract

Vegetable crops are inherently rich sources of various health-promoting nutrients and thus they play an important role in balancing our daily diet. Being excellent source of vitamins and minerals, vegetables have a relatively variable nutrient content per unit of energy. These nutrients can be increased by proper selection of vegetables in our diet. Whereas their intrinsic quality maintains human health, the extrinsic quality has significance in determining acceptability by the consumer. Vegetables also have medicinal properties. These diversified and highly nutritive crops are of great importance in alleviating hunger and malnutrition. The present production of vegetable crops is, however, not enough to meet per capita daily dietary requirement as per dietitians’ recommendations. The vegetable production, therefore, need to be almost doubled by 2025 to meet requirement of ever increasing population from diminishing land, water and other natural resources. Although, there has been a trend of increase in production and productivity of vegetable crops since liberalization of seed trade in 1988 by Government of India, yet it has not been commensurate with the requirements. Compared globally, we are far behind in productivity of vegetable crops in spite of being second largest producer after China.

Abstract

Agricultural produce, such as vegetables, flowers and some fruits capture higher market price if they can be produced ahead or later than the main crop season. The demand of such unseasonal products is particularly high in the fashionable markets of big cities. Good quality of the product is, however, an essential requirement to realise this price advantage. Modern technologies can pave the way to take the full advantage of high price realisation. Growing crops under protected covers is being popularised and the application of various approaches of greenhouse technology can further extend this advantage because it offers greater control over the production environment and timing of crops. There has been a consistent increase in area under greenhouse cultivation nationally and is turning out to be a useful technology for resource efficient agriculture. The types of greenhouse structures range from hi-tech climate controlled systems to very elementary trenches or solar greenhouses used in high altitude cold desert regions of the Himalayas. Greenhouse vegetable production on a commercial scale is a capital and labour intensive production system and requires proper planning for sustainable production. Higher yield, efficient resource use, earliness, off-season availability and superior quality is the hallmark of greenhouse grown vegetables. Greenhouse vegetable production can be done from very basic soil based planting to fully automated hydroponic or soilless systems. This production system requires specialised crops and cultivars which should meet the demand of high value markets.

Temperate horticulture in Himalayan States forms the backbone of states economy by providing livelihood to more than 10 million people and draws about 60% of its Gross Domestic product (GDP) from the surrounding ecological resources. Being an important sector it has been given priority in recent years through various developmental programmes to harness the vast potential of natural resources, the topography, soil, climate and horticulture crop diversity. The outburst in climate and over population have become a major concern challenging natural resources of the Himalayan region for sustainable development of agriculture and improving livelihood of the local inhabitants. Depleting natural resources and vagaries of weather are negatively affecting long-term sustainability of Himalayan agri-horti production system. In spite of several chal-lenges the horticulture in temperate region has made some progress. The area, production productivity, availability and export of horticulture products have increased manifolds leading to improvement in employment and farm income. But still the temperate fruit industry is far behind and is facing the problem of low productivity and high cost production due to lack of elite planting material, old and senile orchards, rainfed farming, lack of efficient water, nutrient and canopy management, high infestation of insect and pests, poor transport and communication coupled with weak post harvest infrastructure. The modern new high yielding varieties and technological interventions developed especially the high density plantations; canopy & pollination management; fertigation, INM and water harvesting; cost effective and eco-friendly protection technologies and post harvest management and value addition have shown great potential to revolutionize the horticulture sector to bring paradigm shift from existing low quality lower productivity sector to high quality-higher productivity sector. The farmers have an opportunity and can take the advantage of emerging technologies in temperate horticulture to improve their nutritional and livelihood security.

Resistance of some plants against a pathogen is due to their belonging to taxonomic groups which are outside the host range of the pathogen. Such resistance is called non host resistance. It is attributed either to genes for resistance (R genes) against the avirulence genes of the pathogen (true, race specific, cultivar-specific, or gene-for-gene type resistance), or to the plants escaping or tolerating pathogen infection due to various reasons (apparent resistance). There are two kinds of true resistance: partial (also called quantitative, polygenic, or horizontal resistance) and R gene resistance (also called race specific, monogenic, or vertical resistance). Several examples of true resistance attributable to, biochemical underpinning or genetic transformation of host plants of major fruit crops viz., apple, pear, apricot, plum, cherry, almond, mango, grapes, banana, citrus, papaya, guava and pomegranate against important plant pathogens are known. Much greater efforts need to be invested, however, for incorporating resistance to diseases in horticultural species because of their huge relevance to socio-economic well being of farming community of the hill regions. The effort in this chapter will be towards synthesizing information which officials of the administrative and development departments can use for drafting plans and policies for promoting protection and up gradation of livelihoods of hill farmers.

Use of insect-resistant varieties in integrated pest management is an economically and ecologically sound alternative to synthetic pesticides. A large number of germplasm lines of different fruit crops have been evaluated for resistance to pests, and a few genotypes with resistance to insects, mites and nematodes have been identified. The resistance of “Winter Majetin” apple variety against woolly apple aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum (Hausmann) was the first report of innate resistance to insect pests in fruit crops. Another successful example was the resistance to grape phylloxera, Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (Fitch), in which the susceptible European scions (Vitis vinifera) were grafted onto the resistant American rootstocks (Vitis labrusca) in late 1800s. Various leaf characteristics, such as hairiness, pubescence, thickness of veins, sponginess, stomatal density and fruit characteristics such as rough skin, have been reported to confer resistance to insect pests. High content of phenols, flavonols, potassium, calcium, and low carbohydrate and nitrogen contents have also been reported to confer insect resistance in various fruit plants. The germplasm has been screened against various pests under natural as well as artificial infestations. In apple, rootstocks (MM-series) resistant to woolly apple aphid have been developed. Molecular markers for three genes that confer woolly apple aphid resistance are located on two linkage groups (LG). Low infestation of the woolly apple aphid has also been recorded in Golden Delicious variety which incidentally is the most preferred host of apple fruit moth. The scab resistant apple selections, HCR21T200, HCR23T125, S80ER21T72 and TSR16T223 have also been found to be resistant to the European red mite, Panonychus ulmi (Koch). Peach varieties such as Flaming Gold, Stark Early Giant, Early White Giant and Flavour Crest are moderately susceptible to the peach leaf curl aphid, Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kalt.). Peach cultivar, Matchless has been reported tolerant to flat headed stem borer, Sphenoptera lafertei Thomson. Early maturing varieties of peach are reported to escape the fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) damage while Nemaguard, and Nemared rootstocks are resistant to important nematode pests. Almond varieties, Briggs Hard Shell, Katha 85, Ribba Selection and Tree No. 55 have been reported free from peach curl aphid infestation.

Current and emerging animal nutrition, reproduction and health management technologies have the potential to improve efficiency of livestock production. However, the thermal stress or hyperthermia caused by elevated ambient temperature reduces feed intake, milk yield, growth rate and reproductive performance of livestock species. Livestock in tropical countries will be affected severely by the abrupt and fast-paced climate changes. The impact is not only on production traits, a number of animal species may become endangered. Many of the native livestock species still perform better under climatic stress and low-input conditions. It is necessary to catalogue the indigenous livestock genetic resources, elucidate their genetic make-up and regulation of key metabolic pathways of adaptation and productive attributes and using the inferences to develop strategies for utilizing livestock resources under climatic stress.

In spite of its importance, little has been done to assess interactions of climatic variability with productivity performance of different livestock species, sustainability of livestock production systems, livestock based livelihoods and application of science of climate change on small holder and subsistence livelihoods. The climate and its change affect all productive traits and physiological functions of farm livestock and related livelihoods. Heat stress is the most detrimental constraint to livestock production, particularly in mountainous regions. Introduction and selection for highly productive animals and breeds has increased their susceptibility to adverse impacts of climate change. It is necessary to incorporate resilience through selection and breeding for thermo-tolerance and development of adaptable breeds. Modifications in shelter designs and management of production facilities will also be helpful in mitigating adverse climate impacts on animal production and health. Modern animal husbandry practices that target increased per animal productivity allow efficient utilization of feed nutrients and increase returns from fewer animals. Livestock need to be looked for their immense contribution to nutritional security and livelihoods. A well designed livestock production system is among the best ways for sustaining and improving livelihoods and this chapter details the possible options.