eChapters

Ring Porous

• having vessels more numerous and usually larger in cross section in the springwood with a resulting more or less distinct line between the springwood and the last season’s wood— compare diffuse-porous.

• In some species (e.g. Oak (Red Oak, White Oak) Teak and ash elm, hickory), the largest pores are in the earlywood while those in the latewood are more evenly distributed and uniform in size.

• These woods typically have distinct figures and patterns, and the uneven uptake of stain (the large pores soak up more colour) make the figure more pronounced.

• These are also known as open-grain woods

Semi-ring porous or Semi-diffuse porous

• In some species (e.g. Butternut, Black Cherry, Black Walnut, Pecan, Tanoak), pores are large in the earlywood and smaller toward the latewood, but without the distinct zoning seen in ring-porous woods.

• Also, some species that are usually ring-porous (e.g. Cottonwood) occasionally tend toward semi-ring porous.

Anatomy is the study of an internal structure of an organism, while morphology is the study of various external features of an organism Anatomy helps in knowing the structural peculiarities of different groups of plants, which help for adaptation to diverse environments. An angiosperm plant is characterized by the presence of roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits

Plant cells: Plant cells are multicellular eukaryotic cells that make up a plant (a group of eukaryotes belonging to the Plantae kingdom, with the ability to synthesize their own food using water, sunlight and CO₂). Being eukaryotic cells, they have a defined nucleus with specialized structural organelles that enable it to function in an orderly manner.

(I)  Structure

The swine is an omnivorous animal because if can eat both vegelables and meat. But generally they prefer the vegetarian diet over the carnivorous diet. Pig is a simple stomach animal with double hoof. Different type of pigs are found as Sus indicus, Sus vittatus, Sus scrofa and  Suis domesticus.

            At the first instance, the skeleton of pig looks smaller than its original size. The main reason of this is feeding and nutrition of the animal. The pigs are kept indoor, provided less exercise and artificial feeding that leads to fattening of animals (pigs). The other reason for the undersized skeleton in pigs is that as compared to other animals the bone density of pig is more and they are very nicely arranged, that is why they are much stronger. The skull of the pig is triangular, long towards mouth, frontal bone is large and strong.

            The jaw has teeth, they use it for tearing and chewing of objects (feed). The temporary and permanent dental formula of pig is follows:

1. Anatomy the word derived from Latin word.

2. Study of internal structure and organization of organisms known as anatomy.

3. The macroscopic study of organisms is known as gross anatomy.

4. The study of parental developmental anatomy is known as developmental anatomy.

5. The study of tissue is known as histology.

6. The study of organization of cell and sub cellular components known as cell biology.

7. The study of nervous system is known as Neuro anatomy.

8. Bottom feeder has sub terminal or inferior mouth.

9. Sturgeon bottom feeder.

10. Grouper and lion fish has superior mouth.

11. In half beaks the lower jaw projects.

Similar to animals of the higher order, insects also possess all important internal systems of organs necessary for the proper performance of the various vital functions. The most important of the systems are the alimentary or digestive system, the circulatory system, the respiratory system, the reproductive system and the excretory system. The fundamental arrangement of the various organs is more or less similar in all insects and does not exhibit much remarkable variations as seen in the external morphological features. The dorsal blood vessel or heart runs along the median line immediately below the dorsal wall. The digestive system including the alimentary canal and its appendages lie in the middle, below the heart. The nervous chain lies below the alimentary canal and immediately above the ventral wall.

Similar to animals of the higher order, insects also possess all important internal systems of organs necessary for the proper performance of the various vital functions. The most important of the systems are the alimentary or  digestive  system,  the  circulatory  system,  the  respiratory system, the reproductive system and the excretory system. The fundamental arrangement of the various organs is more or less similar in all insects and does not exhibit much remarkable variations as seen in the external morphological features. The dorsal blood vessel or heart runs along the median line immediately below the dorsal wall. The digestive system including the alimentary canal and its appendages lie in the middle, below the heart. The nervous chain lies below the alimentary canal and immediately  above  the  ventral  wall.   The  organs  connected  with  the reproductive system are found in the posterior region of the abdominal cavity on both sides of the alimentary canal.  Though these arrangements are characteristic of all Arthropods, including insects, they are quite different in the higher animals (Fig.23)

Primary Dicot Root

A young dicot root which does not possess secondary tissues but only the primary permanent tissues (tissues derived from the apical growing point) is called primary dicot root. It is generally cylindrical in outline and possesses the following tissues.

I) Epiblema or Piliferous Layer

It is the outermost layer of the root. It is made of compactly arranged thin walled and slightly elongated parenchymatous cells. Epiblema of a root differs from the epidermis of the stem in being devoid of distinct cuticle and stomata. Some cells of the epiblema give rise to thin – walled tubular outgrowths called root hairs. In some plants the root hair mother cells are shorter in comparison to other epiblema cells. The root hairs and piliferous layer (pilus – hair, ferre to carry). The root hair and thin walled epiblema cells absorb water and mineral salts from the soil. Root hairs commonly do not live for more than one week. With their death the epiblema cells become suberised and cutinised.

II) Cortex

It lies below the epiblema. The cortex is made up of many layers of thin walled parenchyma cells. The parenchyma cells may be rounded or angular. They enclose inter-cellular spaces for diffusion of gases.The cells of the cortex store food. They also conduct water from the epiblema to the inner tissues.

In order to evaluate the correct status of the organs their correct disposition within the body becomes very essential. Although one cannot see the organs beyond the skin, but appropriate knowledge of the topography of the organs can act as a glass covered watch wherein one can see from outside the arms and the dial of the watch.

Horse

Heart: The heart is placed in the middle mediastinum of the thoracic cavity with its long axis directed caudo-ventrally. Three fifth of the heart lies on the left of median plane while two fifth is on the right of the median plane. The base is placed dorsally, with its highest point at the junction of the dorsal and middle thirds of dorso-ventral diameter of the thorax. As a whole it lies opposite to second intercostal space/third rib to sixth rib/sixth intercostal space. The apex of the heart lies in the center of the last segment of the sternum about half inch from the sternal part of the diaphragm. Heart is directly related to the lateral thoracic wall at the cardiac notches formed in the lungs. The left surface of the heart extends from third to sixth rib in the lower third of chest while the right surface extends from third to fourth intercostal space.

Primary Dicot Stem

A stem with only primary permanent tissues is called primary stem. It represents a young stem. The different tissues present in dicot stem are arranged in concentric layers. e.g. Sunflower

I) Epidermis

Epidermis is the outermost layer of the stem. It is made up of compactly arranged parenchymatous cell, which look rectangular in transverse section. The cells are transparent and devoid of chloroplasts. The outer walls are convex, thickened and cutinized. On the outer side they possess a layer of cuticle. The internal walls of the epidermal cells are thin. The radial walls are thick towards the outer side and gradually become thin towards the inner side. Pits occur in the radial walls. The epidermis of sunflower bears several unbranched multicellular hair. At place the epidermis contains minute pores called stomata or stoma. Each stomata or stoma has a pair of specialized kidney shaped cells called guard cells. The guard cells have a few chloroplasts. By their swelling, the two guard cells can form a pore between them.

The major components of the immune system are the lymphocytes which constitute lymphoid system (Figure 2.1).The lymphoid organs are classified into two categories: primary and secondary lymphoid organs.

Like any other organ system in the body, immune system comprises of various organs and cells. The major component of the immune system is the lymphocytes which constitute lymphoid system. The lymphoid organs are classified into two categories: primary and secondary lymphoid organs.

Primary lymphoid organs: These are the organs where B and T lymphocytes undergo maturation. Bone marrow and thymus are the primary lymphoid organs. These are the organs where lymphocytes differentiate, proliferate, get selected and mature into functional cells.

3.1 Introduction

Fish are the only true aquatic vertebrates. These exploit every nook and cranny of the water domain. They are notable for their vast numbers and perplexing forms. In the phylogenetic history of vertebrates, this is the first group of animals to develop biting jaws. The origin, evolution and interrelationships of fishes are not fully understood due to incomplete fossil records and a scarcity of primitive types. The early appearance of bone, cartilage and enamel-like substances was crucial in the evolution of fish.

Throughout human history, people across the globe have sought to understand and predict the ever-changing skies. From the scorching deserts of North Africa to the lush rainforests of South America, and from the snow-capped Himalayas to the vast Australian outback, ancient cultures developed unique methods to forecast the weather. These traditional knowledge systems, often passed downthrough oral traditions and  storytelling, reflected the specific environmental contexts, mythological beliefs, and spiritual practices of each community. In ancient China, royal astronomers meticulously recorded weather patterns and planetary movements to guide agricultural planning and imperial decisionmakingIn Greece, philosophers like Aristotle and Theophrastus wrote extensively on weather signs and forecasting methods. In Africa, tribal communities observed animal migrations and plant behaviors to anticipate seasonal changes. Native American tribes used lunar cycles and star constellations to predict weather patterns, while ancient Indians studied the movements of planets and nakshatras (lunar mansions) to forecast monsoon rains.

Detailed information on tectonic evolutionary history of the Bay of Bengal is presented followed by elucidation of these characteristics towards tsunamigenesis in this chapter. The Andaman-Nicobar Island Arc (ANIA) is situated on a 1000 km long plate margin and represents a key region in the developing oceanic crustal area of Bay of Bengal. Frequent earthquakes including the tsunamigenic earthquake of 26th December 2004 off the coast of Sunda take place in this region. The subduction of Indian plate under Myanmar-Thailand plate drives formation of chain of Andaman-Nicobar group of Islands. These oceanic crust formation, subduction and arc formation are all seismigenic and generate shallow focus earthquakes in the Bay of Bengal. It is also observed that the seismicity is decreasing as the bathymetry increases towards SW of the Bay of Bengal. Thus, in long term, the slow accumulation of stress as tectonic plates converge may result in many more earthquakes in this region. After a dormancy of over 100 years, the Barren Island volcano renewed its activity following recent earthquakes. The seismic activity along the Andaman-Nicobar trench is continuing with earthquakes of magnitude varying from 4.8 to 7.2 Richter scale. All these observations suggest resurgent and intense tectonic and volcanic activities due to which allied hazards such as tsunami may take place in future.

INTRODUCTION

The evolving Earth, depending on its heat flow pattern in the mantle throughout geological time, had passed through stages, which are diagnosed through characteristic geodynamic signatures. This chapter focuses on a very active region in the crust, namely, the Andaman-Nicobar Island Arc (ANIA) to recognize such signatures and decipher relative safety of surrounding regions including east coast of India. As similar active arc systems such as Sunda Arc & Japan Arc generate volcanic, seismic and tsunami hazards, understanding the ANIA would be of help assess safety of surrounding regions. Abundant geoscientific literature exists on the northern part of the Indian plate, which is undergoing compressive stress since collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates about 55-45my. However, the behavior of remaining part of the Indian plate underneath the Indian Ocean is still sparcely studied. Owing to these reasons, this chapter attempts to fill the gap in our understanding as well as to assess the implications of renewed phases of geohazard occurrences including that of catastrophic earthquake and tsunami of 26^th December 2004.

Pulses, grown on marginal and poor soils under low input management with very low yields, are the integral part of dryland farming systems and cover 12.8% of the total cropped area in Andhra Pradesh. There are no pulse based cropping systems in the state and they are only component crops of cereals or commercial based cropping systems as intercrops or catch crops in between two main crops or as sequence crops after exhaustive cereal or commercial crops raised on residual fertility and receding soil moisture. The important pulse crops grown are Chickpea, Pigeonpea (Redgram), Mung bean (Greengram) and Urd bean (Blackgram) which contribute to 97.7% of total pulse production in the state. Pigeonpea is mostly grown as intercrop under rainfed conditions with crops like sorghum, maize, castor, cotton etc. It is also grown as sole crop and at times, pigeonpea is intercropped with greengram/ blackgram.

Breeding soundness examination can be used as a diagnostic aid in herd fertility problems. After breeding soundness examination, a bull is classified as a satisfactory potential breeder, a questionable potential breeder or an unsatisfactory potential breeder. Members of the Society for Theriogenology developed the concept of a breeding soundness examination as mentioned below.

Anaesthesia is an important criterion for doing laparoscopic procedure, which is being achieved by induction of general anaesthesia. However, in certain species, e.g. bovine, caprine etc., it can be done by preanaesthetic agent and infiltration of the local anesthetic agent at the site of the trocar placement. Selection of an anesthetic agent depends on the patient conditions, nature of procedure; time to be taken for the laparoscopic procedure and available facility. For the induction of the general anaesthesia follow the same procedure as in the conventional surgery viz. fasting, water withheld, preanaesthetic, fluid administration etc. Further, due to difference in the physiology of cardiopulmonary system of different animals, all these considerations varied from species to species and breed-to-breed. For instance cattle and buffalo are more prone to regurgitation and subsequent aspiratory pneumonia in general anaesthesia than those of dog and cat. While going for induction of general anaesthesia, an anesthetist should know about the different drug being used, their mechanism of action, effect on the different body system, their adverse effect and pure antagonist, if possible. Besides this an anesthetist should also know about the patient physiology and equipment for the administration of the anesthetic agents, because veterinary anesthetist is faced with numerous disturbances of cardiopulmonary and skeletal muscle function associated with general anaesthesia. For anaesthesia no anaesthetic agent is safe until and unless it is used by an experienced anesthetist.

A sound understanding of general anesthetic emergencies and surgical techniques is vital for all practicing veterinarians. In most of the veterinary practices, after induction of anesthesia, no one is assigned the task of anesthetist to monitor anesthesia and occurrence of complications during surgery which may lead to the development of anesthetic emergencies. Onset of general anesthesia disturbs the physiological equilibrium of patient and increase the threshold of harmful events. The harmful events of anesthesia includes:

Morphological characteristics

It is a glabrous aromatic perennial or biennial herb, 1-2 meter tall. Stem is hollow. Root is thick rhizomatous. Leaves are unipinnate, bipinnate, or tripinnate, large pinna is toothed, ovate or lanceolate.

Floral characteristics

Inflorescence is compound umbel with numerous rays. Flowers are white, yellow or purple in colour, bracteate; florets white or purple. Seeds are small in size and winged. Fruits/seeds are 1.25 cm by 0.6 cm in size.

Distribution

The plant is endangered in status, which is distributed in Western Himalaya from Kashmir to Uttrakhand, in alpine scrub and forest shades between 2700-3700 meters.