eChapters

History of Genetics

Lamarck (1744-1829): Proposed theory of “Inheritance of acquired characters”.

Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882): published his classic book “Origin of Species” in 1859 and proposed theory of evolution and survival of the fittest.

Johann Greger Mendel : Gave laws of heredity in 1866 and is considered as Father of Genetics.

W. Flemming: The term mitosis was first used by Fleming in 1882.

W. Waldeyer: Coined the term “Chromosome” in 1888.

August Weisman: Gave the “Theory of Germplasm” in 1889.

The increase in size and weight of farm animals is the simplest manifestation. The life in the animals begins with a single cell weighing practically nothing, then grow to reach mature weights ranging from 1 kg to 800 kg or more for a bison. Fromconceptionto maturity, animalsgrowth canbe depicted bya sigmoid (S-shaped) graph :

Practically there may be deviation from above pattern due to environmental and nutritional features. Retardation of growth may be observed due to feed scarcity during cold or dry seasons. Vice-versa will happen when there is feed abundance. Intensivehusbandrygenerallyfollows sigmoid growthof animals. Whereas, idealized pattern of growth would be deviated in the growth rate of animals, whenreared undernatural (extensive) conditions;exhibitinginterrupted curves. While growing, development of various parts of the animal, defined as anatomical components (for example legs), as organs (for example liver) or as tissues (for example muscle) grow at different rates. By the time of maturity, the proportions of the animal changes. For example in cattle:

• At birth: Head is relatively large, 6.2 % of the body weight. • At body weight of 100 kg: Head is 4.5 % of body weight.

Introduction Handling and restraining is done to perform different management technique like drenching, dressing, vaccination etc safely, correctly, quickly and painlessly. Procedure • Handling should be done gently • Animal should not be shouted or beaten, always try to call/speak before touching. • Approach animal from behind and from their left side • Head and neck portion should be handled first • Always  have the owner or attendant along with you while handling strange animals Common appliances used in controlling animals 1. Rope: essential tool most often used for restraining animals. Cotton rope is preferred for strength, safety and easy to make knots 2. Halter: It is used as a least harsh of all restrain methods for animals. Halter are used to teach the animal to lead, to routinely handle them for day t

2.1. Introduction

A system of housing is more or less synonymous to the system of management of dairy cattle. Housing is essential to protect the animals from extreme climatic conditions, wild animals and theft. Housing also helps to maintain normal health of the animal by proper feeding, watering and reducing environmental stresses. An efficient housing system ultimately leads to an efficient management and reduce labour requirements to the minimum.

Farming System of India

Based on how income is derived from a farming enterprise: Specialized farming, diversified farming and mixed farming.

Based on mode of ownership and organization of farms: Individually owned, co-operative farming and collective farming

Based on scale of operations: Small scale farming and Large scale farming.

The livestock sector in India is experiencing fast growth in the present era and plays an important role in the Indian economy. Livestock contributes nearly 25% to the agricultural sector output and growing at an annual rate of 4.3% higher than the growth in agricultural sector as a whole (2.8%). Milk production that had been hovering around 20 million tones in 1960’s increased to 102 million tonnes in 2007-08. The egg production also increased from 0.1 billion to 1.0 billion in the last 25 years. Besides production of milk, meat, etc livestock make important contributions to crop production by supplying draught power and dung manure.

Animal husbandry in India is largely a rural activity. Rapid growth in livestock production is desirable not only to sustain agricultural growth, but also to reduce rural poverty especially when a majority of the land holdings are small. Fifty-eight percent of rural households have land holding of less than 2 ha and another thirty two percent have no access to land. Number of these households is likely to increase due to further fragmentation of land holdings. Livestock are thus an important source of income for small farmers, marginal farmers and landless agricultural labourers in the rural areas of the country. Products like milk and eggs are steady source of cash income, and live animals are important natural assets for the poor, which can be easily liquidated for cash during emergency. Smallholders and landless together control 75% of the country’s livestock resources, and are capable of producing at a lower cost because of availability of sufficient labour with them. These smallholders earn nearly half of their income from livestock sector.

Introduction 
Chapter 12 explores the pivotal role of animal husbandry and veterinary sciences in managing livestock and ensuring food security while addressing global environmental challenges. The chapter covers various aspects of animal care, including livestock management, nutrition, health, and the broader implications of these practices on food security and climate change. The chapter begins with an examination of livestock management and production systems, focusing on the different systems used in animal husbandry, such as extensive, intensive, and semi-intensive systems. It highlights the principles of efficient livestock management and the need for sustainable practices to optimize productivity while minimizing environmental impact. Animal nutrition and feed management are crucial for maintaining livestock health and productivity. This section discusses the importance of formulating balanced diets that meet the nutritional needs of different animal species, the role of feed management in improving feed efficiency, and the impact of nutrition on animal health and production. Animal health and disease management are central to ensuring the well-being of livestock and preventing the spread of diseases. The chapter explores common animal diseases, methods for disease prevention and control, and the role of veterinary sciences in maintaining herd health and productivity. The importance of animal sciences, poultry science, fish science, and related disciplines in food security is addressed, emphasizing how advancements in these fields contribute to reliable and efficient food production. The chapter highlights how these sciences support the development of sustainable practices and technologies that enhance food security. The impact of these sciences on global warming is examined, focusing on both direct and indirect effects. The chapter discusses how livestock production contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and explores strategies for mitigating these impacts through improved management practices and innovative technologies. Modern concepts in animal sciences, poultry science, and fish science are reviewed, showcasing recent advancements and their implications for sustainable livestock management and food security. The chapter discusses new approaches and technologies that are shaping the future of these fields

Cooperative

A cooperative is a duly registered association of persons, with a common bond of interest that have voluntarily joined together to achieve a lawful common social or economic end, and making equitable contributions to the capital required and accepting a fair share of the risks and benefits of the undertaking in accordance with universally accepted cooperative principles.

Cooperative may be defined as an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly-owned and democratically-controlled enterprise. It is a business organization owned and operated by a group of individuals for their mutual benefit.

A cooperative may also be defined as a business owned & controlled equally by the people who use its services or who work at it.

The basic objective of every cooperative is to provide goods and services to its members and thus enable them to attain increased income and savings, investments, productivity and purchasing power and promote among them equitable distribution of net surplus through maximum utilization of economies of scale, cost-sharing and risk-sharing without however, conducting the affairs of the cooperative for missionary or charitable purposes.

Rural development programmes are created and maintained for influencing people to make changes in their way of living and of making a living. The existence of such programmes implies that the present situation of the rural people is not what it should and could be, that something different should prevail, and that it is possible through appropriate action to attain a more desirable status for them.

Changes that are important to people are those that help them to meet their needs for biological, economic, social, aesthetic and moral well being. Basically, all programmes for rural development exist to help people to meet their needs. If programmes do this people have their free choices in societies and will not participate for long periods in them. The element of people’s needs, therefore, becomes a central concern of planner for rural development. Hence, the entire process of planning for rural development implies a need for change. But now the question arises that change from what, to what, by whom, where and by what methods?

The society has to find ways to adjust itself so that people meet their needs for an improved economic status, for being more useful citizens and for enjoying a higher degree of social stratification, it must identify these conditions and plan realistically to achieve them. It is the prime concern to identify that what needs do people have ? How can needs be identified? What plan of priority should be set up for meeting people’s needs? What resources are necessary to meet people’s needs? How should resources be organized and directed to help people’s meet their needs? These questions give the key orientation and justification for rural programme planning.

1. Cattle
2. Buffaloes
3. Sheep
4. Goat
5. Swine
6. Camel
7. Rabbit
8. Poultry

Animal husbandry

Animal husbandry is the branch of science concerned with the care and breeding of domestic animals such as cattle, hogs, goat, sheep and horses.

India supports nearly 20% of the world livestock and 16.8% human population with a land area of only 2.3%. India leads in cattle and buffalo population and has world’s second largest goat and third largest sheep population. As per the 19^th Livestock census (2012) cattle (191 millions), buffalo (109 m), Sheep (65 m), goats (135 m), pigs (10.29m), camels (0.4 m) and poultry (729.2 m) population was reported in India. The total livestock population has decreased by about 3.33% over the previous census. India’s milk production increased from 43 million tonnes in 1983 to 155.5 million tonnes in 2015-16 (annual growth of 6.27%) and stands first in milk production in world.. The egg production is around 82.93 billion during 2015-16. The per capita availability is around 66 eggs per annum. The poultry meat production is estimated to be 3.26 million tonnes. Wool production (43.6 million Kgs) and meat production is 7.0 million tonnes in 2015-16.

Livestock plays a vital role in any country’s economy as animals are a source of livelihood for people, providing milk, meat, and fur, and are used for agricultural work. Hence, the loss of animals due to disease or any other reason results in loss of wealth, livelihood, and nutrition. In view of this, management of mortality on farms is of utmost importance. There are different ways to manage and dispose of dead animals. The acceptable methods to manage mortality include composting, rendering, incineration, landfills, burial, and disposal pits. Composting is one of the options for managing mortality on farms. Composting is the decomposing of carcasses by natural processes, viz the use of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms to convert organic matter into a stable product called compost. Composting involves the degradation of the carcass by anaerobic bacteria to convert it into liquid material with odor and gases such as hydrogen sulfide and ammonia)The anaerobic process produces heat that kills many viruses and bacteria and allows the growth of only heat-tolerant bacteria)The temperature continues to rise and peaks between 130 to 160 0F. Composting requires a source of energy

Historical Aspects: Eighteenth Century: Antoine Lavoisier, a French scientist was known to be as ‘Founder of science of nutrition’. He established chemical basis of nutrition in his respiration experiments and introduced balance, thermometer in his studies. Along with Laplace, he designed a calorimeter through which it was demonstrated that respiration is the essential source of body heat. Even they started realizing that something is there like – carbohydrate, protein, fat and a need was felt for their investigation. But due to bad luck, French revolution took place and Lavoisier’s career was ended by
Guillotine (be – heading). As a result, further studies on nutrition suffered a setback for several years.
Second half of 19th century: Babcock, an American dairy scientist observed that feeds of different sources were eaten by animals, but there was ‘no way of knowing’, what particular contribution each of those feeds was making to animal’s needs. Therefore, he conceived the idea of trying the rations made up of entirely from a ‘single plant’. He was criticized that his research was highly impractical. Later, his younger colleagues pursued this idea in another experiment. They planned their experiment more meticulously with a greater number of animals by feeding single crop rations. But at that time, they couldn’t conclude irrespective of their exhaustive chemical studies of feeds, excreta, tissues of dead calves. It was later on that; the new discoveries provided the ‘true answer’. Later, based on this previous experience, ‘Purified diet method’ was undertaken: carbohydrate as pure starch, fat as pure lard or oil, protein as pure casein along with some minerals then known to be essential. It was revealed that there were certain other nutritionally essentials which were very important.

Introduction

Advancement in agricultural research has increased productivity however, in recent years, poor linkage of research - extension services hampering the growth of agriculture sector. Firstly, the research problems are investigated without considering the priority of agricultural producers Secondly, knowledge generated at the agriculture research stations is not effectively transferred to the producers. Many studies have identified the weaknesses in the linkages between the research and extension institutions are the major reason for development of technology and its transfer. In most countries including our country, the communication between research and extension agencies is weak (USAID 1982, FAO 1984). Research-extension-farmer linkages are seen to be absent or weak in many instances. At the same time, there are duplications of efforts, with a multiplicity of agents attending to extension work without adequate coordination (Planning Commission, 2008). This ineffective linkage between research and extension has impeded the generation and transfer of technology appropriate for small-scale and resource poor farmers, particularly those who work in relatively low productive and heterogeneous agro-ecological areas (Ewell 1989). Problems in technology generation and transfer arise because these components are considered in isolation (World Bank 1985).

Partitioning of Energy in Livestock

Energy Partitioning

Partitioning of energy involves loss and distribution of feed energy into different body functions.

Gross energy is calculated from the heat produced when a sample of feed or feces is subjected to complete combustion in a bomb calorimeter under a pressurized oxygen atmosphere.

Apparent digestible energy is the difference between the gross energy of the feed consumed and the gross energy of the feces excreted. Digestion is accompanied by the production of gases in both fore- and hindgut and by the urinary excretion of metabolites.

Metabolizable energy is the difference between digestible energy and energy lost to gases and urine. Metabolic processes and physical activity produce heat (heat of production) which may warm the animal in cold weather. In hot weather, energy may be required to expel excess heat of production, through panting and increased respiratory rate.

Net energy is the remaining energy available for maintenance, reproduction and production. The diagram on the left illustrates energy partitioning for a particular cow near the end of her lactation. Energetic efficiency of this cow is about 29%, expressed as output in the form of milk, gain and fetal growth divided by gross energy input. Although their energy requirements are significantly greater, higher producing cows are also more energetically efficient.

Veterinary oncology is an upcoming field in recent years due to the integration of the importance of spontaneous canine cancers in understanding and developing novel strategies for human cancer management. We are stepping towards a very exciting era in veterinary oncology, where comparative oncology has played a significant role for many decades in understanding the molecular basis of cancer in companion animals. The comparative animal models have generated remarkable interest in both academia and industry. Studies have demonstrated the utility of comparative oncology in understanding drug resistance and tumor biology, contributing to the translational research[1]. This has yielded breakthrough discoveries, from advanced diagnostics to novel therapies, providing opportunities to improve the longevity and quality of life of the pets. These inputs have led to advancements such as the first conditionally approved chemotherapeutic agent for lymphoma, novel BRAF testing for canine urothelial carcinoma, tyrosine kinase inhibitors for mast cell tumors, updates in stereotactic/FLASH radiation, and novel immunotherapeutics. As the understanding of cancer biology has advanced, the field of veterinary oncology has grown significantly, paralleling developments in human oncology. Veterinary oncologists treat a variety of cancers in domestic animals, particularly dogs and cats, but also in exotic animals, horses, and even zoo animals. While the types of cancers in animals share similarities with human cancers, treatment strategies can differ significantly due to species-specific differences in anatomy, physiology, and response to therapies [2, 3].

• Neoplasm General

• Neoplasm in cattle and buffaloes

• Neoplasm in sheep and goat

• Neoplasm in equines, swine and camels

• Neoplasms in pet animals

• Neoplasms in poultry

• Neoplasms in wild animals

• Neoplasms in laboratory animals