eChapters

Infiltration is the entry of a fluid from one medium into another. Soil water plays an important role in nature. The entry of rain or irrigation water into soil is called infiltration. Infiltration rate is defined as the amount of water entering into a soil per unit area per unit time under one atmospheric pressure. The infiltration rate depends upon initial moisture content of soil, condition of soil surface and permeability of various layers.

The maximum water holding capacity is the amount of water, expressed as percentage on oven dry basis held by a soil when it is completely saturated with water. At this moisture content, all the pore spaces are completely filled with water.

Object: Determination of the viability of seeds by tetrazolium test. 

Material required: Healthy seeds, tetrazolium solutions, beakers, water and petridishes. 

Theory: Viability of seeds shows their potential towards germination.

Aim

To determine the thermal conductivity of the agricultural materials probe method.

Materials required

Thermal conductivity probe

Stainless-steel sample container

Grain or powder sample

Graph sheet

Power source

Materials Required

Sample, 0.1 N NaOH solution, 1% phenolphthalein indicator solution, beakers, conical flasks, pestle and mortar, funnels, volumetric flasks, pipettes, pH meter, shaker.

Reagents

    1.    0.1 N NaOH: Dissolve 4 g NaOH (AR) crystals in sufficient water to make up the final vol. 1 litre.

    2.    1 % Phenolphthalein: Dissolve 1 g in 100 ml water. Readymade indicator solutions are more commonly used.  

Procedure

Preparation of sample: For fresh fruits and vegetables, prepare a well blended, uniform pulp in a pestle and mortar and for processed products, take out a representative sample and blend it well so that it becomes uniformly soluble when added to water. Filter through a fine muslin cloth or coarse filter paper if felt necessary. The liquid samples can be taken directly for estimation.
    1.    Take out a known weight / vol. (say 20 g) of sample in a beaker (in 3 replicates).
    2.    Make it to a known vol. (say 100 ml) with added distilled water.
    3.    Take 10 ml of this aliquot in a conical flask.
    4.    Add 1-2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator into the aliquot.
    5.    Titrate against 0.1 N solution of NaOH till light pink coloured end point is obtained.
    6.    For coloured products, i.e. tomato products where judgment of light pink colour is difficult, titration may be done over a shaker, and digital pH meter may be used for continuously measuring pH of aliquot which would show a steady increase with more and more addition of 0.1 N NaOH. Titre value may be recorded when pH of 8.3 is obtained.
    7.    Record the titre value and calculate the acidity of the sample as per the given formula.

Introduction

Demonstration of biological nitrogen fixation is usually accomplished by estimating the total nitrogen through use of some modification of the Kjeldahl procedure. This technique is accurate and reliable whenever a medium initially low in nitrogen is employed.

Principle

The dried organism is digested with sulphuric acid. Organic and nitrate nitrogen is converted to ammonium sulphate and the ammonia gas is distilled into boric acid forming ammonium borate making weak boric acid alkaline. The ammonium borate is back titrated with standard sulphuric acid until the reaction mixture changes its colour from green to pink due to formation of ammonium sulphate. The standard acid used in back titration of ammonium borate is a measure of nitrogen content of the organism.

Principle: A weighed sample is dried in an oven at 60-70⁰C up to a period of time when weighing made at 2 hour intervals do not differ by more than 2-3 mg.

Materials Required

Fruit/ sample, refractometers, thermometers, standard solutions of known TSS, temperature correction Tables.

Procedure

    1.    Calibrate refractometers of all ranges to be used.
    2.    The TSS of the juices/pulps/fresh fruits can be measured with the one having lowest range i.e. 0-32º Brix while, for measuring the TSS of concentrates, syrups, squashes, jams, jellies etc. refractometers of the higher ranges are made use of.
    3.    Put a drop of material on to the glass surface of refrectrometer’s prism, cover gently with the lid and observe the TSS against light.
    4.    Measure the temperature of the liquid which is being evaluated and apply temperature corrections (Annexure III).
    5.    Record the corrected value as the TSS of the sample.

23.1. Aim

To determine the total soluble solids in fresh and processed fruit and vegetable products.

23.2. Theory and principle

Total soluble solids (TSS) are determined by means of brix which measures the specific gravity or by using hand refractometer which measures refractive index. Brix is a measure of soluble solids only in case of pure sucrose solutions. Generally, the fruit juices contain more sugar than any other soluble constituent. Hence, brix provides a useful guide of soluble solids or sugar contents. Brix hydrometer is used to determine the percentage of brix in syrup while Abbe refractometer gives refractive index as well as degree brix. The Refractive index of the test solution is measured at 20°C using a refractometer and the soluble solid content is determined by the use of tables correlating refractive index with soluble solids. Generally, hand refractometer is used for determining TSS in food samples in fruit processing units (Table 3.1).

Purpose: The estimation of total soluble constituents gives the approximate amount of water soluble substance present in the sample. Among the various soluble substances the amount of sugar is 80-85 percent. The TSS value is roughly considered to be the amount of sugar and soluble minerals present in fruits and vegetables. The total soluble solid content can be determined by hand refrectometer.

Material and equipments: Hand refrectometer, juice, muslin cloth or tissue paper and glass rod.

Introduction

Urea is one of the common fertilizers used as a source of nitrogen. It has nitrogen in amide form (-NH₂) and this form of nitrogen is not utilized by plants. So it has to be hydrolysed. The enzyme, urease hydrolyses the urea to ammonia and ammoniacal nitrogen is taken up by plants or further nitrified.

The measurement of activity of this enzyme in soil is important from soil fertility point of view. There are two methods for determination of the urease activity of soils.

• First involves the measurement of end products of urea hydrolysis. i.e., NH₃ or CO₂.

Theory

The volume of food material play an important role in design of storage bins, conveying equipments, separation equipments, etc. Volume of larger products such as fruits and root crops can be determined using the platform scale or water displacement method.

Objective
After performing this experiment you will be able to learn:
The water absorption of packaging material by Cobb method.
Introduction

The water absorptive capacity, or Cobb value, is defined as the mass of water absorbed in a specific time by 1 square meter of paper, board, or corrugated f iberboard under a head of 1 cm of water. To determine this value, conditioned test pieces are weighed before and after being exposed to water under specified conditions. The excess water is removed using blotting paper and a brass roller of defined dimensions and weight. The test piece is weighed immediately before and after exposure to water for a specified duration on one surface. The increase in mass due to water absorption is expressed in grams per square meter (g/m²).

The Cobb value defines the water absorbency of paper as the amount of water absorbed by one side of a unit area of paper or board placed horizontally under a 1 cm water head within a given time.

Principle

This method, developed by Cobb, measures the amount of water absorbed by paper, paperboard, or corrugated fiberboard over a specified period under standardized conditions. It is applicable to paper or board that is not fully penetrated by water during the selected absorption time.

Purpose

The determination of water holding capacity in soils is important as it gives an idea of the capacity of soil to hold water for the use by crops. The light soils which do not hold such water require more frequent irrigations than heavy clay soils; well decomposed organic matter increases the water holding capacity. Exchangeable sodium and type of clay mineral also have a marked effect on water holding capacity. Water holding capacity of soils is useful for selection of soils for irrigability classification. It also helps for comparing other properties of soils.

Water holding capacity of soil is the amount of water that a given soil can hold against the force of gravity. Soil texture and organic matter are the key components that determine the water holding capacity of a soil. Soils with smaller particle sizes (silt and clay) have larger surface area and can hold more water as compared to sand which has large particle sizes and smaller surface area. It is an important hydro-physical characteristic of a soil because it provides simple means of determining useful moisture levels to maintain soil for good plant growth. Detail procedure for determination of water holding capacity of soil using Keen box method (Piper, 1966) is described here.

Over most of the wetness range in which plant roots normally function, all the water in soil is controlled by matric forces. A relationship between water content and matric or soil water suction is referred to as water characteristics of the soil. Increase in matric suction is associated with decrease in water content in the soil and the process is known as desorption. On the other hand with decrease in suction soil moisture content increases and this process is known as sorption. The curves showing relationship during progressive intake and withdrawal of water are known as sorption and desorption curves respectively.

Tensiometer is suitable for finding out soil water characteristic at tension values below 2.0 kPa, whereas gas phase pressure is required for higher tensions. A pressure chamber containing a porous membrane or a ceramic plate with all its accessories to provide regulated compressed air is most convenient. A detailed methodology to determine water characteristic curve by pressure plate apparatus is described below.

Aim

To determine the water solubility and absorption index of given food powder.

Materials required

Digital centrifuge machine

Graduated measuring cylinder

Beaker and distilled water

Soil aggregates refers to a group of two or more primary particles which cohere to each other more strongly than surrounding particles. Under field condition, all such units also cohere to some degree with neighboring aggregates and form larger aggregates. Such aggregates form and break easily into smaller aggregates during tillage and by disruptive action of water and air. The aggregates maintaining their identity are those in which the cohesive forces among particles are greater than the disruptive forces. A quantitative characterization of aggregates is done by determining aggregate stability and size distribution of aggregates. The aggregate stability refers to the resistance of soil aggregates to breakdown by water, air and mechanical manipulations.

The soil aggregates which can stand the disruptive forces of wetting by water are known as water stable aggregates. Therefore, the process of wetting, disruption of dry aggregates and screening of aggregates of different sizes should reasonably compare to the disruptive action of water and mechanical forces of tillage under wet conditions. The vacuum wetting of dry soil largely simulates the process of soil wetting in the surface layers but the immersion wetting is more comparable to the wetting of surface soil by irrigation. Similarly, sieving under water compares more closely with the disruptive action of water and other mechanical forces. The mean weight diameter (MWD) of water stable aggregates is a useful index to characterize the change in structure due to tillage. The mean weight diameter can be calculated using following equation.

Primary particles tend to adhere under natural condition so as to form secondary unit called aggregates. It is very difficult to determine the diameter of the individual aggregated particle. So the mean weight diameter is calculated as a single value constant, which indicate the wetted average value for a group of aggregates.

Objective

After performing this experiment, you will be able to learn:

Water vapour transmission rate of packaging material

Introduction

Moisture Vapor Transmission Rate (MVTR), also known as Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVTR), measures the rate at which water vapor passes through a material. MVTR is crucial in various industries where moisture control is vital. For example, moisture-sensitive foods and pharmaceuticals are packaged using materials with controlled MVTR to ensure quality, safety, and shelf life. In the textile industry, MVTR serves as a measure of breathability, enhancing comfort for outdoor clothing. In the building materials industry, managing moisture barrier properties in architectural components helps maintain appropriate moisture levels in the internal spaces of buildings. Various techniques are used to measure MVTR, ranging from gravimetric methods that assess moisture gain or loss by mass to advanced instrumental techniques capable of measuring extremely low transmission rates. It's important to note that special care must be taken when measuring porous substances like fabrics, as some techniques may not be suitable.

Soil texture is the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay in soil by weight. As per the classification of the inorganic soil particle by the International Society of Soil Science, diameters of the sand, silt and clay particles vary from 2 to 0.02 mm, 0.02 to 0.002 mm and less than 0.002 mm, respectively. There are 3 broad textural groups i.e sand, loam and clay and each broad textural group is subdivided into different textural classes depending upon the proportion of sand, silt and clay.

DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN IN RURAL AREAS (DWCRA)

Objectives

  1.    To raise the income level of women poor households.

  2.    Formation of groups of 10-15 women in rural poor for developing of services.

Salient features

  1.    Each group is given one time grant of Rs.25,000/-as revolving fund for infrastructure, purchase of raw materials, marketing, child care etc.

  2.    Fund is in ratio of 50:50 between Central and State government.

  3.    Provision of setting up of District Supply and Marketing Society for women producers.

DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY (DRDA)

Objective

To professionalise the DRDA so that they are able to effectively manage the antipoverty programmes of the Ministry of Rural Development and interact effectively with other agencies.

Salient Features

•   The DRDA is visualized as a specialized agency capable of managing the anti-poverty programmes and to effectively relate these to the overall efforts of poverty eradication in the district.

•   The DRDA role will be to facilitate the implementation of the programmes, to supervise, oversee and monitor the progress, to receive and send progress reports and maintaining accounts of funds received for various rural development programmes.

•   DRDAs also need to develop synergies among different agencies for the most effective results.

•   The Chairman Zilla Parishad would be the chairman of the governing body of the DRDA.

Abstract

Brinjal being native vegetable crop of India possesses rich variability. It is one of the important crops for arid region with limited irrigation water. The large variability in genetic resources available in this crop, provide scope for development of varieties with desirable characteristics such as earliness, high fruit quality and yield, tolerance to high temperature and fruit and shoot borer (FSB).

Introduction

Corona viruses are a huge family of viruses that cause many chronic diseases. A novel corona virus is an advanced strain of virus that has not been formerly identified in humans. Accepted recommendations to avert the spread of disease include regular hand washing, covering of mouth and nose when coughing and sneezing, avoid close contact (social distancing) with anyone showing symptoms,etc. Since majority of the people, especially children are sitting inside their home the usage of digital platforms are also increased dramatically.

COVID-19 and the associated lockdown in the country, has made a significant impact on the life of the population, across boundaries. Roughly saying, it has been near to a year since the foremost case of corona virus was reported in India, which was reported on January 30th 2020. Today that is, on 10th December 2020, 69,383,534 corona cases were reported, 1,578,707 deaths and 48,155,526 cases were recovered globally. In India 9,768,643 corona cases were reported, Of which 141,817 deaths and 9,253,388 cases were recovered. Whereas in Kerala, 2562 deaths, 658633 confirmed cases and 596593 recovered cases were reported. The only fluctuations are in the statistics, but the conditions are the same in each day. Of this study, we aim to create awareness on COVID-19 through interactive and pleasure seeking games. This helps to make them aware about the severity of the pandemic and also improves their psychological health. Lack of awareness and the passive attitude of people is the major factor of this situation. Children and the older adults are the major two communities more convenient to disseminate the information and at the same time they are the most vulnerable groups to the corona virus. Children are more enthusiastic and older people are more precaution. By providing the same games for both age groups, the interaction between both becomes closer and thereby improves the mental well-being of both in a family. So that the games were most effective in all respects. Games are activities usually undertaken for fun and enjoyment, but it not only meant for fun but also gives edutainment. Games are an effective tool to disseminate information by entertaining way.

1. Introduction

With the advent of globalization and subsequent economic liberalization, the focus of Indian agriculture is shifting from “subsistence” to “commercial” mode, where farming is viewed as a “business” rather than “life-support” system of poor farmers. Enabling farmers “decision-making” capacity is a primary driver of success in the market-oriented agriculture. This “commercial focus” has brought tremendous changes in the “nature” and “mode” of extension work. On the other hand, extension work organizations in developing countries like India, are being impacted by sharp decline in public sector funding, rapid technological innovations especially in the Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), and the shift to a knowledge-based workforce. These developments created new opportunities for the extension workers to perform the information dissemination, capacity building and technology application more effectively. 

Introduction

In view of the present Indian agriculture scenario, farmer producers organisations (FPOs) are emerged as a most appropriate institutional form to mobilize small and marginal farmers ,improved their access to technology, inputs and markets. As per the report of National Council on Farmers, these organisations are mainly promoted to combine the advantages of decentralized production and centralized services, post harvest management, value addition and marketing. (NCF,2004). In order to meet the dream of Atmanirbhar Bharat and to make farmers atmanirbhar, Farmer Producers’ Organizations (FPOs) is an appropriate form to mobilize them. Recently Government of India has announced a budgetary provision of 4496.00 crore for five years for promotion of 10,000 FPOs.(Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs,CCEA2020)

Also to improve agricultural productivity and income of the farmers, it is necessary to develop an entrepreneurial culture among the member farmers of an organisation. To make this organisational approach more successful, member farmers need to develop planning ability, decision making abilitiy, managerial qualities ,scientific attitude, organisational skills, participatory skills etc. The member farmers as an agripreneur should possess knowledge about improved production techniques, markets, consumer preferences , schemes, credit availability, policy advocacy to enterprise effectively under FPO.

Introduction

Entrepreneurship is regarded as one of the most important factors that contribute to economic development of a country. The current epoch of development is marked by structural changes in developing economies to create new opportunities of entrepreneurship. This is largely made possible by liberal policy interventions that foster enhancement of enterprises of all hues. Unlike previously, in every country, an entrepreneur is looked upon as an invaluable contributor to economic growth and development. This is more important in developing economies, as ‘entrepreneurship development’ has multiplier effects as it invariably fulfils other important pre requisites of development, viz. innovation, technological development, new institutions and human resource development. To put it in other words, without enterprise and entrepreneurs, there would be little innovation, little productivity growth, and few new jobs. This is more relevant in the agricultural sector since the emphasis has now shifted from mere enhancement of productivity to value chain management, through a process of extensive entrepreneurship development. More so, this has been identified as a strategy for sustaining the livelihood options of small farmers who have found it difficult to thrive the perils of price fluctuations, increasing cost of production and several other uncertainties that have plagued the farm sector.

Scientific leadership is a cornerstone of progress in agricultural sciences, playing a pivotal role in driving innovation, fostering collaboration, and addressing global challenges such as food security, climate change, and sustainable resource management. Effective scientific leadership ensures that research efforts are strategically aligned with pressing societal needs and that knowledge generated in laboratories and fields translates into tangible benefits for farmers, policymakers, and communities. This chapter delves into the qualities of effective leaders in agricultural sciences, the challenges they face, and strategies to nurture and support scientific leadership in this critical domain. The G20 Chief Science Advisers Roundtable (G20-CSAR), initiated under India’s G20 Presidency, is a flagship program aimed at fostering collaboration and enhancing access to scholarly scientific knowledge. This effort emphasizes the synergy of scientific expertise, ensuring that innovations and advancements are not only accessible but also utilized effectively to address pressing global concerns, such as climate change, public health, sustainable development, and digital transformation. Through this platform, India seeks to promote open science, equitable knowledge-sharing, and stronger international cooperation in research and development.
7.1. Qualities of Effective Leaders in Agricultural Sciences
To excel in agricultural sciences, leaders must embody a diverse range of qualities that enable them to inspire teams, foster innovation, and drive impactful research. These qualities include:
7.1.1. Strong Communication Skills
Effective leaders in agricultural sciences must be adept at communicating complex scientific concepts to diverse audiences. Whether engaging with fellow researchers, policymakers, farmers, or the general public, they must tailor their messages to ensure clarity and relevance. Strong communication skills are also essential for securing research funding, building partnerships, and advocating for science-based policies.

ABSTRACT

Over the last three decades, SAC has been engaged in the development and dissemination of remote sensing and GIS technologies for national development. These developments have originated from various initiatives related to national projects, sensor related research and in-house research and development on applications. A large multidisciplinary team of scientists develop technologies in various fields of applications like agriculture, coastal zone management, urban planning, forest and environment, etc. In addition, significant efforts are directed towards technology development for generic applications like photogrammetry and applications involving synergistic usage of remote sensing, GIS, GPS and satellite communication. Some specific examples of recent technological developments pertain to simulation modeling of crop yields, horticultural crop management, site selections for aquaculture, location of cold storage plants, large area crop production forecasting, base map creation, telegeoprocessing, mobile satellite services for fleet management, automated procedures for linear infrastructure planning, urban land use allocation planning.

An overview of these technologies and the modalities for their effective utilization by government, industries and users are summarized. Dissemination of these technologies for public bodies and private sector has been taken in the form of promotion of consultancy services in different application areas. Some major areas where these sectors have benefited through consultancies are estimation of cash and other field crops, city development planning, site selection for industry, land use change detection studies for environmental impact assessment, coastal regulation zone compliances and land use scenario, forestry related applications like catchment area treatment, forest fires monitoring, etc. Examples of consultancy services for private sector are included.

Keywords : Technology dissemination, technology development, remote sensing applications.

Example: Isolation and Characterization of Protease Inhibitor Gene and Promoter from Black gram (Vigna mungo L.) and Genetic Transformation and Molecular Analysis of Transgenic Tobacco

9.1 General Description

Education can help farmers in impoverished nations move away from environmentally damaging slash-and-burn agriculture (Nganje et al. 2001). The goal of their study was to see how much extension education can help people embrace agricultural strategies other than slash and burn. In Cameroon, farmers' cropping patterns are modelled as a function of farm size, farmer educational level, and extension professional visits, whether slash and burn, varied crops, or monocropping. According to the data, higher extension visiting rates reduce not just the risk of farmers choosing slash and burn agriculture, but also encourage them to switch to monocropping. Because monocropping is a trend toward export-oriented agriculture in Cameroon, it may help to promote greater economic development in Western Africa (Nganje et al. 2001). Continued extension education activities are therefore vital in decreasing the environmental damage caused by slash and burn agriculture while also encouraging the adoption of more profitable cropping strategies.

The negative impacts of shifting cultivation on the environment as farmers strive to provide for higher populations and the associated decline of shifting cultivation into an unproductive system have led most governments in Southeast Asia to perceive it as a backward method of cultivation (Thanh and Vien 2017). Consequently, governments throughout the region have tried to ban shifting cultivation. In Malaysia, for example, huge development programmes have been implemented to improve shifting cultivators livelihoods when they abandon shifting cultivation (Majid, 1983). The government of Laos has enacted land-use and forestry policies aiming at expanding forest cover, eliminating shifting farming, and supporting intensive commercial agriculture (Castella et al., 2013). For many years, the Vietnamese government has implemented strict rules and procedures to combat shifting cultivation. These include a large-scale programme called 'Fixed Cultivation, Fixed Residence' (officially known as Resolution No. 38/CP), which aims to permanently settle 'shifting fields' and 'shifting people' (McElwee, 2004), as well as a forestlandallocation policy that ties people to specific plots of land, effectively making shifting cultivation impossible (Castella et al., 2005).

Insects generally reproduce by laying eggs or ‘ova’. The initiation of growth inside an egg, which in most cases is preceded by fertilization, leads to a long series of changes, finally attaining the adult stage and in due course to sexual maturity and finally to reproduction of a new generation. This chain of events from the egg stage to adult constitutes the ‘life history’ or ‘life cycle’ of an insect.

Insects generally reproduce by laying eggs or ‘ova’. The initiation of growth inside an egg, which in most cases is preceded by fertilization, leads to a long series of changes, finally attaining the adult stage and in due course to sexual maturity and finally to reproduction of a new generation. This chain of events from the egg stage to death constitutes the ‘life history’ or ‘life cycle’ of an insect.

Eggs are laid singly or in batches of only a few or up to hundreds or  even thousands. Generally eggs are laid under conditions, where food is available for the feeding of the future young ones.  The eggs are generally smooth, elliptical or oval, but some have diverse shapes such as, disc-like, hemispherical, conical, globular, spindle and many other forms. The egg surface may also have a variety of textures. In some aquatic insects, the eggs are covered with a gelatinous secretion, which swells in water forming a jelly-like spawn. In mosquitoes, the lateral sides of the eggs are expanded, which serve as floats. Eggs vary in size, from microscopic to about 3.0 mm. in diameter and 5.0 - 6.0 mm. or even more in length.

The development of an insect is a continuous process, but on the basis of external manifestations, it is divided into definite stages. The stage within the egg is termed ‘embryonic development’, that after hatching ‘post-embryonic development’ and the changes of form during the post-embryonic development constitute ‘metamorphosis’.

Developing a nutraceutical or functional food is becoming mandatory as looking at the current nutritional status of the population over the world. Nutraceutical foods are proven to cause several health benefits to people. Hence the basic aim behind developing the nutraceutical chocolate bar was to fulfill the nutritional demands and provide some additional benefits to people. The product mainly contains two key ingredients that are, Drumstick (Morings oleifera) which has the most qualities to call a Superfood” and Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) which is referred to as “Mother of all grains”.

1. VARIETY

Variety is a seed/crop which suit the prevailing agroclimatic conditions, high yielding and possessing desirable attributes such as disease resistance, earliness and grain quality. Similarly, the seed should be pure, appropriate classes, and obtained from an authorised official agency.

Introduction Sea food processing is one of the major contributors in food processing sector. The purpose of seafood processing is to prevent the wastage and prolong the shelf life of highly perishable commodity. It also increases the economy of the country through exports (Gopal et al., 2014). India produce 9.6 million MT of sea food during the every year and is one of the largest fish producers in the world. 23% of marine products are processed currently in India (Sathianandan, 2017). Pasteurized crab meat is one type of processed marine commodity exported from India. Globally, the pasteurized blue crab and swimming crabs are the major contributors to the economic wellbeing of the seafood industry. In India, pasteurized crab meat industries are significantly contributing to the export markets. Among the crab export, 70-80% is exported as pasteurized crab meat (Jebadurai17, 2014).

32.1 Introduction

Development or embryogenesis refers to the events that occur after fertilisation. Embryogenesis in fish includes the formation of stages up to fingerlings. The process is similar in all fishes, but there are some differences between teleosts and elasmobranchs. The development of telolecithal eggs in fish begins soon after sperm fertilisation.

ABSTRACT

Mandarin Orange (Citrus reticulata Blanco.), known as ‘Suntala’ to the local populace, is a major cash crop and was once a pride of Darjeeling hills. It is grown in approximately 930 ha with an annual production of 148.224 metric tones and annual turnover of Rs. 25 crores approximately. Since early 1970s, orange orchards in the Darjeeling hills started to be unproductive inflicting huge economic loss showing severe citrus decline. Gradually the malady assumed alarming proportions and threatening the cultivation of the crop. The major causes for the bottleneck of the citrus industry in Darjeeling hills  is  the heavy incidence of insect pests, diseases and nutritional deficiencies.

Post-traumatic bleeding, caused by accidents or battlefield injuries, is a major worldwide issue due to the associated high fatality rate. Significant efforts have been made to develop hemostatic medications that help reduce post-traumatic bleeding. The use of naturally abundant and highly biocompatible polymers, such as alginate, can have a substantial impact on the efficacy, safety and cost effectiveness of hemostatic medicines.We haveexaminedthe effectiveness of developed hemostatic hydrogel (SA-CZ) containing calcium (Ca2+) and zinc (Zn2+) in treating low-pressure bleeding wounds with the added benefit of promoting faster wound healing. The hydrogel nature of the hemostatic formulation poses limitation as hemostatic material due to its fluid absorption capability. Therefore, we converted the formulation in the form of dry formulation. Further, we explored the use of dry hemostatic particles (SA-CZ DHP) made from sodium alginate supplemented with Ca2+ and Zn2+ to manage excessive blood loss after post-traumatic hemorrhage.SA-CZ DHP showed substantial in-vitro efficacy, as observed by the significant reduction in coagulation time with better blood coagulation index (BCI) and no evident hemolysis in human blood. SA CZ also showed enhanced cellular migration (1.58-fold) in-vitroand improved wound closure (≈70%) as compared with betadine (≈38%) at the 7th-day post-wound creation in-vivo (p<0.005).The safe SA-CZ DHP showed high absorption and accelerated blood clotting kineticswith reduced coagulation time (≈70%, p<0.0001) in whole human blood. SA-CZ DHP significantlyreduced the mean blood loss (≈90% in SD rats tail incision), and bleeding time (≈60%in BALB/c mice tail incision) was at par with commercially available Celox™hemostatic granules.

Materials required
Material : Wheat Flour (1000g), Shortening (350 g), Fine Sugar (400 g), Sodium bicarbonate (10 g), Dextrose solution (100 ml) i.e 25 g Dextrose hydrate in 500 ml water, Distilled water (50 ml), salt (8 g).
Equipments: Mixer, rolling pin, Tray, cookies cutter, baking oven etc.
Principle: Cookies are made from soft wheat are having high sugar and fat content. They contain relatively low moisture content and have fairy high shelf life. Biscuits are similar name used in Europe and UK. Cookies are chemically leavened. Sugar and shortening are creamed to form dough with flour and leavening agents. When cookies dough enters the oven, the fat starts melting and sugar is dissolved which allow the cookies to spread as a function of gravity. The leavening agents expand it in all direction and structure is stabilized with high temperature prevailing in the oven.

4.1 Introduction

The objective of this chapter is to design a mobile app for agricultural field automation with Blynk app. Mobile app is designed to control the water management in field as per requirement. The complete system comprises of two sections sensor node and mobile app. Sensor node comprises of Node MCU, Power supply, LCD, Relay board, soil sensor and Ultrasonic sensor. The system is designed to establish control and communication with specific agricultural field to take sensory data from soil and ultrasonic level sensor and control the PUMP IN motor and PUMP OUT motor with the help of mobile app.Fig.4.1 shows a block diagram for a system to control specific agricultural field with mobile app and IoT modem.

Principle

Adenoviral, oncoretroviral, and lentiviral vectors are commonly utilised for gene delivery in mammalian cell culture and in vivo. Additional important examples of viral gene transfer involve baculovirus and vaccinia virus vectors. Stable cell lines produced with lentivirus technology provide consistent, long-term protein expression compared to the short-term expression achieved through transient transfection. This chapter focuses on cell transformation by lentiviruses.

Equipment

a) Biosafety cabinet level 2 (B2)

b) Carbon Dioxide (CO2 ) Incubator (set to 37°C with a 5% CO2 in air atmosphere)

c) Refrigerated centrifuge

d) Refrigerator

e) Inverted Microscope

f) Micro pipettes (1-10 μl, 10-200 μl, 100-1000 μl)

g) -86°C/-80°C deep freezer h) Autoclave

i) Hot air oven

j) Filtration Assembly

Introduction

The globally growing demand for water has ushered the need for its efficient and judicial utilizations in all fields, and agriculture in particular being a single largest consumer of water. The majority of irrigation projects in India perform at a very low efficiency, which calls for application of efficient water management technologies for meeting the increasing water demands. Estimation of soil moisture or crop evapotranspiration from climatic parameters provides objective criteria for irrigation management. Methods to estimate evapotranspiration require huge climatic data, which are seldom available and not applied by common crop growers. Determining crop water requirement through soil moisture measurement at several locations is time consuming, destructive exercise, and may not give proper assessment of crop water need. The plant based indicator approach considers the plant water status for scheduling irrigation. This might be considered as the ideal criterion because the plant water is a good integrator of the soil, water and climatic parameters.

Introduction

Crops diseases are caused by bacteria, virus, fungi and phytoplasmas. The detection of pathogenic bacteria and viruses in plants, planting material, vectors or natural reservoirs is essential to ensure safe and sustainable agriculture. The molecular based techniques, have evolved significantly during recent past that  allows the rapid and reliable detection of pathogens. The detection and diagnosis of plant pathogens is essential to take control measures and subsequently for eradication of the disease that causes.  Molecular detection is largely based on PCR or RT-PCR amplification following purification of nucleic acids from the samples, with the extraction of the target DNA.

Introduction
Introduction: The digestive system, or gastrointestinal (GI) tract, plays a fundamental role in the overall health and well-being of animals. In veterinary anatomy, understanding the structure and function of the digestive system is essential for diagnosing and treating various disorders that affect food intake, digestion, and nutrient absorption. This complex system is responsible for the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food, the absorption of nutrients, and the elimination of waste, making it crucial for maintaining homeostasis in animal species. Structural Organization: The digestive system can be divided into two main categories: the gastrointestinal tract and the accessory digestive organs. The gastrointestinal tract is a continuous tube extending from the mouth to the anus and includes the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. Each segment of the GI tract is specialized for specific functions, reflecting the dietary habits and evolutionary adaptations of different species. Mouth and Esophagus: The digestive process begins in the mouth, where food is mechanically broken down by teeth and mixed with saliva, which contains enzymes like amylase that initiate carbohydrate digestion. The esophagus serves as a conduit for food, transporting it to the stomach through peristaltic movements. Stomach: The stomach is a muscular organ that serves as a site for food storage and initial digestion. It secretes gastric juices, including hydrochloric acid and pepsin, to denature proteins and activate digestive enzymes. The morphology of the stomach can vary significantly across species. In ruminants—such as cattle, sheep, and goats—the stomach is uniquely adapted for processing fibrous plant material through a complex structure consisting of four compartments: the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum.
1. Rumen: The largest compartment, the rumen, acts as a fermentation chamber where microbial digestion occurs. It is lined with a stratified squamous epithelium and contains millions of microorganisms, including bacteria, protozoa, and fungi, that help break down cellulose and other complex carbohydrates. The rumen’s large surface area, facilitated by papillae, enhances absorption of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) produced during fermentation, which serve as a primary energy source for ruminants.

Most often, a plant gets diseased when it is harmed by an abiotic agents or attacked by a pathogen. As a result, in the first scenario, interaction and contact between the pathogen and the plant are required for the occurrence of a plant disease. No disease develops even though a pathogen and a plant come into contact if the weather is too extreme at the time of the pathogen’s contact with the plant and for a while afterwards. This could be because the plant is able to fend off the pathogen’s attack or because the pathogen is unable to attack at all. Therefore, it would appear that in order for disease to manifest, a third component—a set of environmental factors falling within a favorable range—must also exist. The degree of disease severity in both individual plants and plant populations is impacted by changes in any one of the three components, which can each show significant fluctuation. Plants can exhibit genetic uniformity over a wide area, be of a species or variety that may be more or less resistant to the pathogen, or they may be too young or too old for the pathogen to prefer. All of these factors can either accelerate or slow down the rate at which a particular pathogen causes disease. The way the three elements of disease interact has frequently been represented as a triangle (Fig. 2-1), which is commonly known as the “disease triangle.”

Introduction
The development of disease in plants is a complex process influenced by the interplay between the host plant, the pathogen, and the environment. Understanding the stages and mechanisms involved in disease development is crucial for effective disease management strategies. This chapter will explore the disease triangle, the disease cycle, and the role of environmental factors in disease epidemiology.
The Disease Triangle
The disease triangle is a fundamental concept in plant pathology that illustrates the three essential components for disease development: the host, the pathogen, and the environment. All three elements must be present for a disease to occur.
a) Host: The host is the plant species that can support the growth and reproduction of the pathogen. Different plants exhibit varying levels of susceptibility to diseases, influenced by factors such as genetic resistance, nutritional status, and overall health.

Introduction
The endocrine system consists of glands and cells that secrete hormones directly into surrounding tissues or into the bloodstream to regulate various physiological processes. These hormones help maintain homeostasis, working closely with the nervous system, especially through the hypothalamo-hypophyseal connection, where the endocrine and nervous systems integrate their functions.
Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)
The pituitary gland, often considered the “master gland,” is formed from oral and neural ectoderm. It is divided into two main parts: the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) and the posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis). Adenohypophysis: This portion develops from the roof of the stomodeum (primitive mouth) and consists of three parts: the pars distalis, pars intermedia, and pars tuberalis. It contains several cell types, including acidophils, basophils, and chromophobes, which secrete various hormones. For instance, acidophils release growth hormone (GH) and prolactin, while basophils produce hormones like adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and gonadotropins (LH and FSH). The secretion of these hormones is regulated by the hypothalamus through releasing and inhibitory factors delivered via the hypophyseal portal system. Neurohypophysis: Originating from the floor of the diencephalon, the neurohypophysis consists of the median eminence, infundibular stalk, and neural lobe. It stores and releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin, both synthesized in the hypothalamus and transported to the posterior pituitary. ADH regulates water balance, while oxytocin controls uterine contractions and milk ejection during lactation.
Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System
The hypothalamus and pituitary gland form a unified control system. The hypothalamoadenohypophyseal system is responsible for regulating the anterior pituitary’s hormonal

Introduction

Meaning of Entrepreneur

The term “entrepreneur” is derived from the French verb entreprendre, which means “to undertake.” Historically, its meaning has evolved. In the early 16th century, it referred to individuals involved in engineering tasks like construction. By the 18th century, the term came to describe those engaged in economic activities. Over time, the concept of an entrepreneur shifted from someone participating in military ventures to someone actively involved in business and economic pursuits. Today, an entrepreneur is defined as an individual who innovates, organizes resources, and takes on risks to create new ventures or products with the goal of generating profits.

Richard Cantillon was the first who proposed the term “entrepreneur is an agent who buys factors of production at certain prices in order to combine them into a product with a view to selling it at uncertain prices in future.”

Introduction
Development of eye
The eyeball is a complex structure having tunics i.e. fibrous tunic (sclera, cornea), vascular tunic (iris, ciliary body, choroid)and nervous tunic (retin a)and its adnexa i.e. eyelids, lacrimal apparatus, extraocular muscles, conjunctiva and other soft tissue are very important structure for proper functioning of eye. The embryonic tissue which contributes for development of eye and its adnexa are:
1. Surface ectoderm of the head: Lens, corneal epithelium, eyelids, Lacrimal gland and conjunctival epithelium
2. Neural ectoderm of the forebrain: Retina, Posterior epithelium of iris and ciliary body, optic nerve
3. Mesoderm: Cornea stroma, Descemet’s membrane, Choroid, Sclera, extra-ocular muscles
Development of eye begins simultaneously with the development of brain by the process of neurulation. Neural tube is lined by neuroectoderm and the exterior of embryo lined by surface ectoderm. Neural crest cells, population of specialized mesenchymal cells develop from the lateral border of the neural fold and do not participate in the formation of neural tube. These neural crest cells migrate under the surface ectoderm peripherally and populating the region around the optic vesicle and form the future all connective tissue of structure of eye.
Formation of optic vesicle and optic cup which develop the retina
The optic sulci are visible as paired evaginations of the forebrain neural ectoderm on day 13 of gestation in the dog. The outpouching on either side of optic field of diencephalon (caudal part of prosencephalon) called optic vesicle which attached to the diencephalon by optic stalk. In dog, it appears at the gestation age of day 15. Each optic vesicle grows laterally until it comes into contact with the surface ectoderm. The surface ectoderm become thickened to form the lens placode near the optic vesicle. This lens placode invaginates into the optic vesicles and form lens vesicle, which later on loses it contact with the surface ectoderm. Simultaneously, the optic vesicle invaginates to form double layered optic cups. The neuroepithelial cells of inner layer of the optic cups proliferate and