eChapters

Abstract

Vitamin C is one of the most important phytochemicals and can be found in almost all fruits and vegetables. Since it covers almost all eventualities, being water solute and prone to leaching from cells, thermally labile (one of the most labile vitamins), pH-, metal ion-, light-sensitive, as well as readily oxidizable by ascorbic acid oxidase, vitamin C is selected as the most frequently measured nutrient to evaluate the nutrients loss during thermal processing. It is generally accepted that if vitamin C is well preserved, the other nutrients are also well retained. Higher retention of vitamin C in processed products is highly desired. Herein this chapter reviews the degradation mechanism and kinetics of vitamin C of fruits and vegetables during thermal processing, such as blanching, drying, cooking and frying. It starts with an overview of the functions of vitamin C in human’s health. Then the current status for understanding of the degradation kinetics of vitamin C during thermal processing was outlined, followed by the discussion of its degradation mechanism. At last, potential strategies or alternatives to keep vitamin C are identified and discussed.

Introduction

All the amino acids have in common an amino group and a carboxyl group attached to the -carbon atom; however, they differ in having distinctive side chains, usually called R groups, as is shown in the following  generalised structural formula

Petunias (Petunia spp.) are annual or perennial plants belonging to Solanaceae family. The common kinds are rather weedy in habit, but their great profusion of bloom under all conditions makes them useful and popular. They are small herbs grown for their showy, often fragrant flower. The geographic distribution includes temperate and subtropical regions of Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia and Brazil, with a centre of diversity in Southern Brazil. For longer flowering season they may be grown in bed borders, edgings, rock garden, window boxes, hanging baskets and pots. Petunia is considered to be the first cultivated bedding plant and has remained as a commercially important ornamental crop since the early days of horticulture and is one of the favourite genera for developing new varieties. Apart from its significance as an ornamental crop, petunia has proved to be one of the most excellent model crops for studies on gene regulation and genome structure, since the system combines innumerable and excellent technical features with a broad range of research possibilities.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Petunia is endemic to South America, with subtropical distribution ranging from 22^o to 39^oS. The major species richness is found in Brazil followed by Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Bolivia. All species occur in Brazil, except for P. occidentalis, which has a disjunct distribution restricted to the Sub-Andean mountains in northwestern Argentina and southern Bolivia. The Serra do Sudeste and neighbouring places in southern Rio Grande do Sul have a low-altitude mountain range and a set of diverse edaphic conditions. Petunia integrifolia and P. axillaris, parental species of garden petunia, are sympatric in these areas. Five species of Petunia grow in Serra do Sudeste, three of them namely P. bajeensis, P. exserta, and P. secreta are strict endemics. In the border of the Serra Geral in the state of Santa Catarina species of Petunia grow associated with grasslands, along forest borders, or on outcrops associated with Araucaria moist forests, at altitudes ranging from 800 to 1800 m. For this area the occurrence of four species, three of them strict endemics, P. bonjardinensis, P. reitzii and P. saxicola, restricted to the higher area of the plateau in Santa Catarina. There are two major disjunct areas of occurrence of Petunia: the Serra da Mantiqueira in Minas Gerais, Brazil, and the Sub-Andean region in Argentina and Bolivia. In the first, only P. mantiqueirensis is found, an endemic species phylogenetically related to the Brazilian highland group. The subtropical range of Petunia, with centers of diversity in southern Brazil, overlaps with that of Calibrachoa.

ABSTRACT

In Ayurvedic system of medicine, the word Astavarga represents eight endangered Himalayan herbs, which includes four orchids Habenaria intermedia D.Don, Platanthera edgeworthii Hook.f., Crepidium acuminatum D.Don, Malaxis muscifera Lindl., three liliaceae members (Lilium polyphyllum D.Don, Polygonatum verticillatum L.,Polygonatum cirrhifolium Wall.) and one zingiber (Roscoea purpurea Sm.). These herbs are popular in various ayurvedic formulations, as for instance, Chyawanprash which is well recognized for strengthening vital force to the body, help in cell regeneration, and build immune system. These plants are repository of various bioactive ingredients such as diosgenin, β-sitosterol, catechin, p-coumaric acid and many more which shows positive biological functions such as anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, antiinflammatory and other associated health promoting activities. In traditional system, different parts of these plants are used for different purpose, and mainly rhizomes are used as herbal formulations. In terms of ecology, these plants are growing wild in Himalaya belts between the elevation ranges of 1200-4000m above mean sea level. Subtropical, temperate and alpine environment provide condusive adaptation and habitat for these species to grow and florish. Due to lack of proper documentation and certification, the identification of most of the species became difficult and illusory. Considering the medicinal importance and endangerment status, attempts have been made in the present communication to provide a comprehensive account on phytochemistry and pharmacological activities associated with astavarga species. The data presented in this communication will put door open for various research activities related to discovery of new drugs and nutraceutical products for human welfare in days to come.

1.1. Introduction: India’s present population, growth rate & projections

India is the second-most populous country in the world after China with its population of about 1.38 billion in the year 2020. The Population Division under the Department of Economic and Social Affairs, of the United Nations, has projected the country’s population to be growing to about 1.50 billion by the year 2030, and 1.64 billion by 2050, of course with its decreasing annual growth rate from 1.04 to 0.25% or so during the period of next thirty years (Fig. 1.1; UNDESA, 2019). The projection says the Indian population will exceed China by the year 2030 even with its decreasing rate i.e. India will be the most populous country by then. As agriculture and allied sectors are the backbone of this country and the largest livelihood source, it support this growing human and livestock population with diversified natural resources and varied agro-climatic conditions. However, the sustainability of agricultural production should be maintained in the face of perturbation and stress on the agro-ecosystem especially the degraded natural resource base and changing climate.

Introduction
Agronomy, the science of crop management, is a cornerstone of agricultural sciences, focusing on the principles and practices that optimize crop production. This chapter delves into the core principles of agronomy, exploring how these practices have evolved over time to meet the challenges of modern agriculture. As the global demand for food intensifies, agronomy has emerged as a critical field that integrates various scientific disciplines to improve crop yields, enhance sustainability, and ensure food security. The chapter begins by outlining the fundamental principles of agronomy, which serve as the foundation for crop management. It then transitions into an exploration of new concepts and innovations that are reshaping the agricultural landscape. These include precision agriculture, vertical farming, agroforestry, urban agriculture, organic farming, and sustainable agriculture practices, all of which contribute to more efficient and environmentally friendly farming systems. The chapter also discusses the role of digital agriculture, climate-smart agriculture, and regenerative practices in addressing the pressing issues of climate change and food security.
By examining these cutting-edge developments, this chapter highlights the importance of agronomy in the context of global challenges such as food security, environmental degradation, and climate change. The role of agronomy in ensuring sustainable food production and its impact on global warming are also discussed, providing a comprehensive overview of the field’s relevance in the 21st century. In the intricate tapestry of agriculture, where the hands of farmers and the mysteries of nature converge, stands a pivotal discipline that orchestrates the dance of growth and sustenance – agronomy. Rooted in science and guided by the rhythms of the seasons, agronomy is the art of orchestrating nature’s symphony to yield the harvests that nourish the world. It’s a testament to human ingenuity and a profound understanding of the intricate balance between the forces that shape our planet.
At its essence, agronomy is the vanguard of crop production, embracing the ever-evolving dialogue between humans and plants. It’s a discipline that transcends mere cultivation, delving into the profound intricacies of plant life, the dynamics of ecosystems, and the manipulation of natural elements to ensure bountiful yields. It’s a synergy of knowledge that marries the wisdom of generations with the cutting-edge revelations of science, all in pursuit of ensuring the sustenance of humanity.

ABSTRACT

Drug discovery is the process to identify the active ingredients from traditional remedies as new candidate for medications. It involves the sources, identification of screening hits, medicinal chemistry and optimization of those hits to increase the affinity, potency, reduce the potential of side effects, increase the half life and oral bioavailability followed by clinical trials. While studying and screening the plant resourses of Himalaya, Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm. is identified as an important Heptoprotective Phytopharma plant. This is an important Indian medicinal plant of the family lamiaceae endemic to the Southeast Asia. The active ingredients of this species possess antimicrobial, antifungal and antioxidant properties as evident from experimentation which may be due to the high content of flavonoids and polyphenols as a major chemical constituents. In Ayurvedic traditional system of medicine, leaves of C. oppositifolia is used for the treatment of wounds and fractures, where as roots helps in curing epilepsy. Chemical investigations on the petroleum ether extract of the leavesof C.oppositifolia, some active molecules suchasn-triacontane, acetyl alcohol, 32-hydroxydotriacontyl ferulate, β-sitosterol and 5,6,7,42 -tetramethoxy flavones have been identified which has hepatoprotective properties as evident from biological investigation. Structures of these compounds were interpreted on the basis of spectral (IR, NMR, MS) data. While studying acute toxicity of these bioactive ingredients, the species can be classified as category V as per GHS of OECD test guidelines and principles of GLP. In the present communication, an attempt has been made to provide scientific data on biology, natural products, constituents of volatile oils, salient markers, medicinal chemistry, results showing hepatoprotective activity and future direction for research to be carried out on this plant species. It also provide data on lyophilized extract or at least one bioactive fraction obtained from leaves of C. oppositifolia and treatment of liver toxicity caused by the conditions hepatoprotective against alcohol induced and tetrachloride (CCl₄) models. The presented data will be helpful in future for drug discovery.

Q. 1 The high moisture grain should be kept in
(A) Air tight structure     (B) Aerated structure
(C) Pucca kothi             (D) Gunny bags in closed room

Introduction

The demand for butter as table spread has declined due to high cost, poor spreadability at low temperature, high saturated fat and cholesterol content, changing life style and increased demand for healthy products. Today food industry is actively involved in new product development, this includes new formulations and imitation of foods being designed to compete with or replace existing products based on their superiority in convenience, cost and quality. The wide acceptance of bread in regular diet among urban consumers (75 percent of all household) reflects around 8 percent rate of growth in bread consumption. With this increase, the requirement of a suitable spread to complement has also increased. Table spreads include a variety of spreadable semi-solid products such as fat spreads, cheese spread, peanut butter etc. Butter has also been blended with vegetable oils/fat to produce a product that retains dairy qualities of butter with enhanced spreadability.

Introduction

Agriculture plays a significant role in the economic development of rural networks in India and constitutes a substantial proportion of the nation’s gross domestic product (GDP). Despite experiencing a decline in its GDP share, the agricultural sector in India continues to hold significant importance due to its modernisation efforts, which have led to a substantial boost in government GDP. In the present scenario, there is an urgent requirement for a modification in the agricultural framework within the legislative body to effectively address the challenges encountered by rural areas amidst the evolving domestic and global financial environment.

Definition of Communication
Communication is the process through which individuals exchange information, ideas, emotions, and meaning through verbal and non-verbal methods. It is a fundamental human activity that enables people to connect, share knowledge, and understand one another. Communication can take place in many forms, including spoken language, written text, body language, gestures, facial expressions, and other symbols.
Effective communication involves not just the transmission of a message but also ensuring that the message is accurately received and understood by the intended audience. For communication to be successful, both the sender (person delivering the message) and the receiver (person receiving the message) must actively participate in the process, with the goal of achieving shared understanding.
Key Components of Communication
• Sender – The person or entity initiating the message.
• Message – The content or information that the sender wishes to convey.
• Encoding – The process of transforming thoughts into symbols (words, images, gestures).
• Channel – The medium through which the message is sent (spoken word, written text, electronic media).
• Receiver – The person or group for whom the message is intended.
• Decoding – The process by which the receiver interprets the message.
• Feedback – The response provided by the receiver, indicating whether the message was understood.

Potato is an important crop of the world and grown in almost all the states in India. Apart from India, potato is grown in more than 100 countries but the intensity of cultivation varies considerably. For example in the Netherlands 19.6% of the total arable land is cultivated with potatoes. The figures for Germany, Peru and USA are 10.1%, 5.6% and less than 1% respectively. India ranks fourth in area (1.29 m ha) and third in production (25.23 m ton) in the world. The productivity of potato depends mainly on the quality and quantity of planting materials and the agronomic management practices adopted. Most of developing countries including India experience release of high yielding varieties, development of adequate agronomic and pest control measures but the gap between supply and demand of good quality adequate quantity seed has to be the major constraint in increasing its productivity. The seed production in India is mainly confined to the North-Western part both in the hills and the plains, because of favourable weather and low incidence of aphids (vectors responsible for viral diseases) in this regions.

Leafy greens, comprising a diverse array of crops such as spinach, lettuce, kale, collard greens, and mustard greens, among others, are a vital component of global vegetable production. With their high nutritional value, versatility in culinary uses, and ease of cultivation, leafy greens (Fig. 6.1) have become an integral part of diets worldwide.
• In India, leafy greens are grown across various agroclimatic zones, with major producing states including Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. The estimated area under leafy greens cultivation in India ranges from 0.7 to 0.8 million hectares, accounting for a significant share of the country’s total vegetable production. The annual production of leafy greens in India stands at approximately 5-6 million tonnes, with a considerable portion being consumed domestically.
• Beyond their culinary and nutritional significance, leafy greens also hold substantial economic importance, particularly for small and marginal farmers who constitute the backbone of India’s agricultural sector. The cultivation of leafy greens provides these farmers with a vital source of income, enabling them to support their livelihoods and contribute to local economic development.
 

4.1 Introduction 
The growing recognition of biofuels as a competitive renewable energy source is increasingly evident, particularly when compared to the fossil fuel energy's limited supply, unstable geopolitical environment, and environmental repercussions associated with fossil fuel energy. In the broader context of renewable energy sources (RES), which are characterized as sustainable resources long-time availability at an affordable price and devoid of adverse effects, biofuels emerge as a promising category.(Charters, 2001) Biofuels include any type of energy-dense material that is either directly acquired from biological activities or is obtained through the chemical conversion of biomass from previous species.(Rodionova et al., 2017) Because biomass can be effectively converted into energy, biofuels play a crucial role in supplying energy needs and consumptions. The importance of biofuels in the global energy landscape is underscored by several factors, making them relevant technologies for both developing and industrialized countries.(Demirbas, 2007) Fuel, a concept central to energy discourse, encompasses substances that store and release energy when subjected to a chemical reaction. It serves as the lifeblood of energy systems, powering various sectors from transportation to electricity generation. The variety of fuels available is staggering; they include traditional petroleum-based fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, in addition to renewable energy resources like solar and wind and, most crucially, biofuels and alternative energy sources like nuclear power.(M et al., 2023) Within the realm of biofuels, there exists a multifaceted spectrum, where each type offers unique advantages and applications. Bioethanol, derived primarily from crops such as corn and sugarcane, stands out as a prominent example. Biodiesel, synthesized from vegetable oils or animal fats, represents another significant category. Additionally, advanced biofuels, produced through cutting-edge technologies like cellulosic ethanol and algae-based biofuels, showcase the ongoing innovation within the biofuel industry.(Vickram et al., 2023) There are a number of reasons why people choose biofuels over conventional fuels, but their favorable effects on the environment are the main one. Unlike fossil fuels, biofuels present a renewable and sustainable option, as they are derived from organic materials that could be replenished. This contrasts starkly with the finite nature of fossil fuel resources, which are not only depleting but also contribute to ecological degradation. Moreover, the instability in the geopolitical landscape surrounding fossil fuels, with its attendant economic and security implications, further accentuates the appeal of biofuels as a more secure and resilient energy source.(Lee, Clark and Devereaux, 2008) When

Water is one of the most important production assets and securing access to and control and management of water is key to enhance livelihood base of any country like India where most people depends on agriculture. India is endowed with rich and vast diversity of natural resources, water being one among them. But water resources in India are unevenly distributed over the country. The more than 50 per cent of the total resources distributed with five states namely Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and West Bengal (MWR, 2008) and left other states much prone to water scarcity.

1. Introduction Millets, including foxtail millet (Setaria italica), are gaining popularity as “smart foods” due to their numerous benefits for the planet, consumers, and farmers (Anitha et al., 2021). Foxtail millet, classified as a major millet, belongs to the genus Setaria in the Poaceae family. It has a rich history, with archaeological remains dating back 7400-7935 years in northern China and cultivation in Europe around 4000 years ago (Lu et al., 2009). Foxtail millet is currently cultivated in 26 countries and stands as the secondhighest cultivated millet globally. It is a relatively short plant, growing up to 2-5 feet tall, and demonstrates high resistance to various stresses, both biotic and abiotic(Sharma and Niranjan, 2018). The crop’s short generation cycle of 5-8 weeks from planting to flowering, followed by 8-15 weeks to attain seed maturity, allows for harvesting within 75-90 days after plantation. Foxtail millet produces hundreds of seeds per inflorescence (Li et al., 2020).

Q. 1 In building material RCC stands for
(A) Revised cost calculation
(B) Revised construction cost
(C) Reinforced central construction
(D) Reinforced cement concrete

Summary

Idealistic theories of property are projected to offer general and explicit statements of the justification for deciding legal and moral questions about the status property claims. Debates over property rights in biotechnology were occasioned by specific legislative proposals such as the US Animal Patent Act of 1986, and by filing of patent applications for DNA sequences and processes in the early 1990s. While these debates make sporadic petition to philosophical theories of property, moral claims were entwined with questions about filing requirements, tests for worth, and the rules for licensing and defending patents. The comparative scarcity of discussion on intellectual property at that time dictated the general approach of the chapter: Review basic philosophical approaches to property rights, and speculate on how one might use these approaches in constructing an argument pertinent to agricultural biotechnology. This chapter deals with different approaches to intellectual property in the field of Plant Sciences especially the Biotechnology. It incorporate many different types of intellectual property and a variety of incommensurable values play a role in the justification of intellectual property.

4.1. INTRODUCTION

Dispersion is the extent to which values in a distribution differ from the average of the distribution. To quantify the extent of the variation, there are certain measures namely:

1. Range
2. Quartile Deviation
3. Mean Deviation
4. Standard Deviation

Range and Quartile deviation measure the dispersion by calculating the spread within which the values lie. Mean Deviation and Standard Deviation calculate the extent to which the values differ from the average.

Summary

Multicellular organisms are made up of diverse set of cells. Cells respond to the changes in the particular microenvironment by means of cellular communication. This cell-cell communication is extremely important for the development, maintenance and survival of the organism. This communication is equally important for the unicellular organisms. Cells communicate to one another and respond to the environmental changes using diverse chemical languages, as discussed in this chapter. However, in many cases like multicellular organisms, cell communication is primarily mediated by specific receptor(s) expressed on the cell membranes. These receptors bind to the extracellular signaling molecules (called ligands) and activate specific signaling pathways to bring about particular cellular responses. These different receptors, ligands and signaling pathways are briefly discussed here.