eChapters

A system is a unit which possess a group of interacting components, operating together for a common purpose, capable of reacting as a whole to external stimuli. It is unaffected directly by its own outputs and has a specified boundary based on the inclusion of all significant feedbacks. For example, the human body is a system-it has a boundary (skin) enclosing a number of components (heart, lungs) that interact (the heart pumps blood to the lungs) for a common purpose (to maintain and operating the living body).

Ecosystem: Any collection of organisms that interact or have the potential to interact along with the physical environment in which they live form an ecological system or ecosystem. Ecosystems are not static entities but, they are dynamic systems with characteristic pattern of energy flow, nutrient cycling and structural change.

Agro ecosystem: Agro ecosystems are ecological systems modified by human beings to produce food, fibre or other agricultural products. Like the ecological systems, agro ecosystems are structurally and dynamically complex. But their complexity arises from the interaction between socio economic and ecological processes.

Crop system: An arrangement of crop population that transform solar energy, nutrients, water and other inputs into useful biomass that produce food, feed, fuel and fibre. Crop system comprise of soils, crop, weed, pathogen and insect subsystems. The crop can be of different species and variety, but they only constitute one crop system if they are managed as a single unit.

Cropping systems: It is defined as the order in which the crops are cultivated on a piece of land over a fixed period of time. Cropping system is the way in which different crops are grown. In the cropping systems, sometimes a number of crops are grown together or they are grown separately at shorter intervals in the same field.

Agricultural professionals continuously confront challenges in preventing pest infestations and managing temperature and moisture levels to protect grains from decay. They recognize the critical importance of safeguarding these valuable resources and rely on quick, dependable solutions to tackle common grain storage issues. Let’s take a closer look at the challenges faced by growers, handlers, transporters, and processors in long-term grain storage, and the strategies they employ to overcome these obstacles.
ABIOTIC FACTORS
There are also abiotic factors, which are non-living elements, that influence the quality of stored grains. Factors such as air, humidity, and temperature play a significant role in grain storage. If these factors are imbalanced in terms of quantity or quality, they can have a detrimental effect on the stored grains.
SPACE CONSTRAINTS
As crop yields continue to rise, farmers face the challenge of finding enough storage space to accommodate the increased harvest. Often, last year’s grain still fills storage bins when the new crop arrives, prompting the agricultural industry to seek innovative storage solutions.
The most straightforward solution to a shortage of storage space is to build additional bins. However, this option is not always feasible for smaller farms or processing facilities with limited budgets. As a result, many choose to repurpose existing barns or store surplus grain outdoors in piles. Unfortunately, this outdoor storage method comes with its own set of challenges, including faster spoilage and pest issues. To counter these problems, some facilities use temporary storage options such as grain bagging systems or outdoor storage tents. Mechanical ventilation systems are also employed to ensure proper aeration, reducing the risk of spoilage before the grain is moved to its final destination.

Fungi

Definition

Fungi are eukaryotic, spore bearing, achlorophyllus, heterotrophic and thallophytic plants with varied forms and habitats, representing heterothallic or homothallic types of sexuality with characteristic sexual and /or asexual means of reproduction without tissue differentiation.

All animals have a range of ambient environmental temperatures termed as thermo-neutral zone. This is the range of temperatures that are conducive to health, performance and well-being. The upper critical temperature is the point at which heat stress begins to affect the animal adversely. There are a number of climatic factors like temperature, humidity, wind speed and radiant energy/sunlight that influence the degree of heat stress. Heat is also produced by metabolism within the body, which includes maintenance, growth and production. Heat production is affected by body weight, species and breed, level of production, level of feed intake, feed quality and, to a lesser extent, by the amount of activity and exercise. Excluding temperature of the air ventilating the house, heat is also added from the roof and walls. Heat stress can be defined as the point where the animal cannot dissipate adequate quantity of heat to maintain body thermal balance. During the periods of heat stress, most of the productive energy is diverted to thermoregulatory adaptations that results into decreased weight gain, poor immunity, oxidative stress predisposing animals to various infectious diseases and high mortality rates. In order to characterize and quantify thermal comfort zones according to animal species, several thermal comfort indices or heat stress indices were developed.

The primary focus for livestock and poultry has been on heat stress indices to provide guidelines for environmental management and risk assessment for losses through linkages with physiological responses (Eigenberg et al., 2005) or performance (Baccari, 2001). The linkage is based on observations of a selected performance criterion (e.g., growth, milk or egg production) made concurrently with measures of the warm environment. These serve as inputs for the selected heat stress index and thus an empirical relationship can be developed which is termed as ?biological response function?. These indices recognize the ability of the animal to cope with environmental stressors by adjusting physiologically, behaviourally and immunologically to minimize adverse effects or even compensate for reduced growth and production performance during moderate environmental challenges. When the intensity and duration of potential stressors exceed thresholds, coupled with limited opportunity for recovery, animals are unable to cope and therefore are affected adversely. Nevertheless, the heat stress indices have served as useful surrogates for the complex interactions between the physical and biological components (Hahn et al., 2003).

Studying livelihood systems requires a multidimensional approach, as livelihoods are shaped by a variety of social, economic, environmental, and institutional factors. To understand how individuals and communities sustain
their lives, researchers and policymakers use a range of indicators that help analyze both the opportunities available and the vulnerabilities faced by people. These indicators provide insights into the resources people use, the strategies they adopt, and the outcomes they achieve in their pursuit of a secure and dignified living. One of the foundational frameworks for analyzing livelihoods is the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF), which identifies five core categories of capital or assets: human capital, natural capital, financial capital, physical capital, and social capital. Indicators related to each of these asset types are commonly used in livelihood studies.
Apart from these core assets, livelihood outcome indicators are also important. These include levels of food security, poverty status, employment stability, quality of life, savings and investment behavior, and ability to withstand shocks. These outcomes provide a picture of whether the livelihood strategies adopted are sustainable and equitable. Institutional and policy indicators are equally significant. These include access to government schemes, land rights, legal entitlements, effectiveness of rural development programs, and availability of extension services. The role of markets, financial institutions, and governance structures must also be considered when evaluating livelihood systems. In the context of vulnerability, indicators like frequency of crop failure, income variability, health risks, and exposure to natural disasters are used to assess how secure or fragile a livelihood is. Coping strategies, such as migration, asset liquidation, or diversification of income sources, are also analyzed.

Introduction
Liposomes as Drug Delivery Vehicles
Liposomes, first described by Alec Bangham in 1961, are self-assembled vesicular structures composed of one or more lipid bilayers surrounding an aqueous core(Nakhaei et al., 2021). These lipid bilayers typically consist of natural or synthetic phospholipids, which can spontaneously form closed vesicles in an aqueous environment due to their amphiphilic nature. The resulting liposomal structure resembles a miniature cell membrane, with hydrophilic heads facing outward towards the aqueous environment and hydrophobic tails facing inward, forming the bilayer structure(Nogueira, Gomes, Preto, & Cavaco-Paulo, 2015). Liposomes are important in the field of drug delivery due to their unique structural properties, which enable them to encapsulate a wide range of therapeutic agents, including hydrophilic, hydrophobic, and amphiphilic compounds. (Guimarães, Cavaco-Paulo, & Nogueira, 2021) The size of liposomes can vary from tens to hundreds of nanometers, making them suitable for both systemic and targeted drug delivery applications. Liposomes can be formulated to exhibit specific properties such as prolonged circulation time, enhanced stability and targeted delivery.(Simões, Moreira, Fonseca, Düzgünes, & De Lima, 2004) The versatility of liposomes is due to their ability to encapsulate drugs within the aqueous core, embed drugs within the lipid bilayers, or attach drugs onto the liposomal surface through chemical conjugation or targeting ligands. This flexibility allows for the development of multifunctional liposomal formulations capable of encapsulating multiple drugs which facilitate combination therapy and theranostic applications.(Cheng et al., 2021; Eloy et al., 2014) Liposomes also offer several advantages over conventional drug delivery systems, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, and low immunogenicity. These characteristics minimize the risk of adverse reactions and systemic toxicity which makes the liposomes suitable for repeated dosing and long-term therapeutic applications.(Al-Jamal & Kostarelos, 2011; Alavi, Karimi, & Safaei, 2017; Goyal et al., 2005) However, liposomal drug delivery systems are also associated with several challenges which include issues related to stability, scalability, and manufacturing consistency.(Kraft, Freeling, Wang, & Ho, 2014)

1. Introduction

Among three major functions identification, classification and nomenclature of taxonomy (Fig. 1), identification is a core activity and one of the major objectives of taxonomy, which determines whether other two elements are the same or different. Classification and nomenclature are two separate methods in taxonomy, however, both are totally dependent on the correct identification of the objects. The identification of an unidentified plant with a correctly identified specimen also involves classification. So, both identification and classification, involve comparison and judgment of similarities and differences. Therefore, the identification is a primary function in classification involving nomenclature which performs an essential role as a means of communication. According to Blackwelder (1967) “identification enables us to retrieve the appropriate facts from the system (classification) to be associated with some specimen at hand” and is “better described as the recovery side of taxonomy.” The identification of plants is very important for proper assessment and characterization of biodiversity on which the whole life of human beings is dependent starting from birth to death. The use of biodiversity for various purposes like food, nutrition, pharmacognosy etc. requires accurate and reliable identification and naming of plants (Nesbitt et al. 2010).

Poultry rearing systems vary in scale and complexity, each suited to different production needs and environments. This chapter explores the main poultry housing systems, detailing their advantages and disadvantages to help in selecting the most appropriate method for various farming scenarios.

Housing Systems of Poultry

Generally, there are four types of housing systems in poultry, they are

1. Free range or extensive system,

2. Semi-intensive system,

3. Folding unit system and

4. Intensive system.

1. The plaster-bandage wrap cast :(Negative cast)

The amputee was restrained on lateral recumbency keeping the amputed leg upwards.

A thin, moistened stockinet was pulled over the stump and it was maintained snugly in place by tying with a string at the top.

The moistened cast stockinet was marked with indeliable pencil indicating prominences with a cross and other sensitive areas with a circle (Fig.1).

Plaster bandages were then wrapped as pen requirement unit I the shell has a thickness of approximately 3mm in proximal third.

After plaster hardened, it was removed either by pulling out or longitudinal splitting with a cutter (Fig.2).

All over the world, garden designing has a historical back ground. Every continent has a definite style based on cultural heritage, agro-climate and the rulers. There are influences of one style over the other and subsequent change in gardening style also. However, there are some recognized orthodox styles like ‘English Garden’, ‘French Garden’, ‘Japanese Garden’, ‘Italian Garden’, ‘Dutch Garden’, ‘Mughal Garden’ etc. These are unique and true to their specific characters. Modern gardens all over the world have been greatly influenced by all these styles.

History and characteristics of these gardens are given below in order to make one acquainted with these styles.

Dutch Garden

Initially, gardening in The Netherlands was started in the form of abbey and monastery gardens (middle ages 500-1500 A.D.). Design of the medieval gardens usually was elongated rectangle, sometimes square, also divided with cross paths. These gardens were mainly meant for production of vegetables, medicinal herbs and fruits besides flowers.

During the Dutch renaissance (1500-1650 A.D.) further gardening activities initiated. After independence in 1609, it gained momentum and the change of garden style also noticed. Gardens became more open without walls. However, the basic design was on the basis of geometrical patterns - rectangular divided into small separate square. Axis of the garden was not in relation to the building. Leafy walk path (berceaux) was main structural elements created between various sub-divisions. Bulbous plants specially tulip was most preferred in the garden besides marigold, carnation, poppy, rose etc.

Introduction Fruits and vegetables are basic foods for human physical health since they have a wide range of flavours and are linked to a higher quality of life. Horticultural crops are known to reduce the risk of a variety of chronic diseases. Recognizing the importance of fruits and vegetables in the human diet, demand for these horticulture food products has skyrocketed. The demand for fruits and vegetables has expanded significantly as a result of greater consumer awareness of dietary habits, the benefits of eating fruits and vegetables, and an increase in the global population. According to research by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), horticulture product production for 2019 is expected to be 314.5 million tonnes, which is roughly 1% more than the global fruit and vegetable (F&V) production in 2017–2018. (FAOSTAT-FAO statistical database, 2019). Over 67 % of the world’s horticulture produce is produced in China, India, the United States, Turkey, Russia, Vietnam, and Mexico (Paggiola et al., 2016).

For the accurate identification and diagnosis of plant disease and plant problems a foundational knowledge of terms and definitions is vital for developing concepts, doing research, discussing and communicating issues and providing clarity to your work. The following terms and definitions are basic to the study of plant pathology. They are, however, just a brief introduction to the vocabulary of the science. If you have limited or no background in the subject and you are just getting started, the concepts and terminology of plant problems can seem somewhat daunting. However, your vocabulary and skill will develop through exposure to diagnostics, experience and correct use of the appropriate terms.
Plant pathology (gr., path -“suffering”- “logy”, the science of) is the study of plant diseases and the abnormal conditions that constitute plant disorders. Etiology is the determination and study of the cause of disease. A pathogen can be living or non-living, but usually refers to a live agent. A pathogen is an organism which causes a disease. Pathological is a condition of being diseased. Pathogenic is having the characteristics of a pathogen and pathogenicity is the capability of a pathogen to cause a disease.

Advertising is a crucial component of marketing, designed to promote products, services, or brands to target audiences. A well-planned advertising strategy enhances brand visibility, attracts potential customers, and drives sales. Various advertising strategies exist, each tailored to achieve specific business objectives and cater to different market segments. This chapter explores the different types of advertising strategies used by businesses to maximize their reach and impact. 1. Print Advertising: Print advertising involves placing ads in newspapers, magazines, brochures, flyers, and billboards. It is a traditional form of advertising that continues to be effective for local and niche markets. Advantages • Tangible and long-lasting: Print materials can be kept for future reference. • Targets a specific readership: Newspapers and magazines cater to specific demographics. • Builds brand credibility: E

Advertising is a crucial component of marketing, designed to promote products, services, or brands to target audiences. A well-planned advertising strategy enhances brand visibility, attracts potential customers, and drives sales. Various advertising strategies exist, each tailored to achieve specific business objectives and cater to different market segments. This chapter explores the different types of advertising strategies used by businesses to maximize their reach and impact.
1. Print Advertising: Print advertising involves placing ads in newspapers, magazines, brochures, flyers, and billboards. It is a traditional form of advertising that continues to be effective for local and niche markets.
Advantages
• Tangible and long-lasting: Print materials can be kept for future reference.
• Targets a specific readership: Newspapers and magazines cater to specific demographics.
• Builds brand credibility: Established publications lend trustworthiness to ads.
Disadvantages
• Declining readership: With digital media gaining traction, fewer people rely on print.
• Expensive for premium placements: High visibility ads cost significantly more.
• Limited tracking capabilities: Hard to measure direct impact and ROI.

Advertising is a crucial component of marketing, designed to promote products, services, or brands to target audiences. A well-planned advertising strategy enhances brand visibility, attracts potential customers, and drives sales. Various advertising strategies exist, each tailored to achieve specific business objectives and cater to different market segments. This chapter explores the different types of advertising strategies used by businesses to maximize their reach and impact.
1. Print Advertising: Print advertising involves placing ads in newspapers, magazines, brochures, flyers, and billboards. It is a traditional form of advertising that continues to be effective for local and niche markets.
Advantages
• Tangible and long-lasting: Print materials can be kept for future reference.
• Targets a specific readership: Newspapers and magazines cater to specific demographics.
• Builds brand credibility: Established publications lend trustworthiness to ads.
Disadvantages
• Declining readership: With digital media gaining traction, fewer people rely on print.
• Expensive for premium placements: High visibility ads cost significantly more.
• Limited tracking capabilities: Hard to measure direct impact and ROI.
2. Broadcast Advertising: Broadcast advertising includes television and radio commercials. It is one of the most powerful advertising methods due to its broad reach and audio-visual appeal.
Advantages
• High engagement with audiences: TV and radio captivate viewers and listeners.

3a. Sources and problems of agricultural wastes
3b. Waste Reduction
3c. Waste Treatment
3d. Waste Disposal
3e. Clean Technology

Different Kinds of Agricultural Wastes
Table 1: Common Hazardous Wastes: Community Source

Introduction

In agricultural extension and education, video production plays a pivotal role in disseminating information, training farmers, and promoting best practices. The effectiveness of these videos is often determined by the quality of their scripts. This chapter explores three primary types of video scripts: basic production scripts, storyboard scripts, and camera scripts. Each type fulfills a distinct role in the production process, and understanding their unique functions is crucial for creating engaging and informative content. By examining these script types, this chapter aims to provide a comprehensive guide to the scripting process, helping to enhance the quality and impact of educational and promotional videos.

Script

A script is the written content for visual stories, such as plays, television shows, or movies. While scripts often include stage directions and production notes for performers and crew, their primary focus is on the dialogue between characters. Scripts serve as a blueprint for the entire production, guiding actors and technical crew through their roles and responsibilities. For example, a script for a stage play will detail character interactions, emotional tone, and specific actions, ensuring that all elements of the performance align with the director’s vision.

4.1 Introduction

There are some mathematical tools that are applicable in solving the mathematical problems related to the subject matter on “Economic Theory”. Differential calculus is one of those mathematical tools. Hence the useful theory of differential calculus will be discussed in this chapter.

4.2 Differentiation

The mathematical term “Differentiation” is involved in finding the rate at which a variable quantity changes.

In the theory of “Differential Calculus” we are concerned fundamentally with the “Rate of Variation” in a function y = f(x) with respect to the change in other variable (Independent Variable X) on which the dependent variable ‘Y’ depends through a relation Y = f(x).

Integrating the function f (x) = 1 + e−x sin (4x) over the interval [0, 1]

using Simpson’s 1/3rd rule gives

(A) 1.021         (B) 0.091

(C) 1.321         (D) 2.642

Introduction

The phytohormone abascisic acid (ABA) was discovered in connection to studies related to shedding of fruits and leaves, also called abscission, and the dormancy of buds. It was first identified and characterized by Frederick Addicott and his associates in 1963 while studying the compounds responsible for the abscission of cotton fruits. Inhibition of growth and maintenance of the dormancy of buds are the most important visible effects of ABA. The concentration of ABA does not remain constant as its concentration decreases in the buds significantly after sprouting and rises during seed and fruit production. Its concentration in dormant seeds is very high and considered as an efficient inhibitor of germination. The role ABA plays during the abscission of fruits and leaves is not clearly understood as its effect is very clear in case of fruit abscission where as it is not very clear on the abscission of leaves. However, the regulatory effect of ABA on the water balance is established in plants. It also induces stomatal closure to inhibit further loss of water. Being a growth inhibitor, ABA also reverses the effect of growth-stimulating hormones like auxin, gibberellins and cytokinin in different tissues of a plant. One of the main goals of phytohormonal ecology is to study the interactions between biotic and abiotic stress at hierarchical levels of biological organization.

9.1 Potential Tracer Difficulties and their Corrections

In radioactive measurements, the observed counting rate is not equal to the true disintegrations rate of the sample since a number of factors like nature of detectors tend to increase it or, in a majority of cases, decrease the actual counts. Some of the important factors responsible for this are

1.Background,

2.Backscattering

3.Absorption

4.Self absorption

6.Geometry

7.Instrument efficiency

One of the major constraints in the efforts to modernize and efficient restructuring of the animal husbandry practices is the delay in taking the results of research to the farming community and in persuading them to adopt new, profitable and locally relevant technologies. The very need of the extension work is to bridge the gap between what is known to the scientists in the laboratories and what is actually being practiced by the farmers in the field. In other words, the major goal of extension machinery is to accelerate the processes of communication and to motivate rural people or livestock owners for adoption of new and profitable technologies. Hence, it is very important to understand these processes of how the farmers get such technologies and how they adopt them.

Communication

The term communication is originated from the Latin word ‘Communis’, meaning common or establishing commoness. When we communicate, we attempt to establish ‘commonality’ with someone through the message.

Communication is the process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts, feelings or impressions in ways that each gains a common understanding of the meaning, intent and use of the message (Paul Leagens, 1961).

Diffusion and Adoption of Livestock Innovations

One of the important functions of livestock extension worker is communication. This communication is not mearly informing the livestock owners about the improved technologies and practices, but to ensure the application of technologies for their benefits. Livestock extension worker’s efficency are always judged and measured (a) by the speed or quickness with which the gap between what is known and what is done by the livestock farmers is bridged, (b) by the number of new practices adopted; and (c) also by the number of livestock farmers and communities that adopt the new practices. While discharging the technology dissemination function, livestock extension worker often faces with some of the difficult questions:

The diffusion and adoption process represents a fundamental mechanism through which innovations, practices, and ideas spread through communities and social systems, making it essential for understanding how community mobilization initiatives can expand their reach and impact while building sustainable social change that extends beyond initial implementation sites. This process encompasses the complex social, psychological, and institutional factors that influence how individuals and communities learn about new approaches, evaluate their potential benefits and risks, and ultimately decide whether to adopt and integrate these innovations into their existing practices and belief systems. Understanding diffusion and adoption processes provides community mobilization practitioners with crucial insights into how successful interventions can be scaled up and replicated across different contexts while identifying the factors that facilitate or hinder

5.1. Diffusion

Process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system.

Introduction

Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is transmitted to the members of a social system over some time and through channels in a specified manner. According to Rogers (1962), this is a unique form of communication in which the messages are focused on innovative concepts. The concepts can include (i) A new idea, (ii) An idea that is communicated via certain channels (iii) Among the members of a social system (iv) Overtime. On the other hand, the adoption process is the mental process through which an individual passes from first hearing about an innovation to final adoption, as defined by Rogers (1962).

Diffusion

Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system (Rogers & Shoemaker, 1971).

Innovation

Innovation is an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or otherunit of adoption.

Adoption

Adoption is a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of action available.

Introduction

Agriculture plays important role in boosting economic activity of farmers. Since it transfers new technologies within the knowledge and information system, it has special features related to knowledge, innovation, and those three. Agribusiness farming needs the diffusion of innovation. Many farmers were unable to boost their earnings. The development of the agribusiness and the welfare of the farmer were both significantly influenced by innovation. Diffusion includes three fairly distinct processes i.e. presentation of the new culture element or elements to the society, acceptance by the society, and the integration of the accepted element or elements into the pre-existing culture (Linton, 1936).

Thousands andthousands ofsamples ofvarious feeds andfoddersweresubjected to Weende analysis fortheir chemical composition have been depictedin various manuals. Such proximate principles of these feeds provide only the potential value forreference or consultationpurpose, but not theactualvalue of feedstuffs. Losses of nutrientsinfaeces(solids), urine (liquid), gasesetc.duringthe digestion, absorption andmetabolismof theanimal shouldalso be taken into consideration. Therefore, a need arises to conduct digestibilitytrial or experiment for the feeds in the ruminant animals. Major portion of the nutrients present in the feeds are not properly digested in the gastrointestinal tract (G.I.T.), hence not completely available to the animal body. Digestibility is that portion of a feed or any single nutrient of feed, which is not excreted in the faeces or dung and it is therefore, assumed to be absorbed by the animal. When this digestibility is expressed in percentage, it is termed as ‘digestibility coefficient (D.C.)’.

Body needs energy for the functioning of various processes for the nutrition and repair of damage tissue. This energy comes from the food nutrients. The food nutrients undergo a series of chemical reactions in the body to release the necessary energy.

The higher animals are dependent on plants and other animals for their nutrients. They can classified into two groups.

Carnivores : Those animals which obtain most of their food by eating other animals are carnivores in these species digestion is mainly enzymatic in nature and microbial digestion is minimal.

Herbivores : These animals obtain most of their food nutrients from herbage and other plant parts. In the herbivores, microbial digestion is of great significance and allows utilization of plant materials that are not broken down by the enzymes present in the digestive secretions.

Most of the domesticated animals except cat & dog fall in the category of herbivores. The domesticated herbivores can be divided into three groups:

1. Ruminants : Those possessing a rumen (cow, buffalo, sheep, goat, camel etc.) in which there is extensive microbial fermentation of the herbage diet in a specialized region of the digestive tract, prior to its digestion by the alimentary enzymes.
2. Psedoruminants eg members of the camelidae family eg camel, Ilama, alpaca, vicuna etc. In pseudoruminants animal third compartment of the compound stomach is absent.
3. Non-Ruminant : The second group is those with simple stomachs (Horse, Pig) in which fermentation takes place in the posterior part of the digestive tract.

Introduction

Digestion may be defined as the hydrolytic process carried out by various enzymes for breaking down complex food components such as proteins, fats and carbohydrates into simpler molecules like amino acids, fatty acids and monosaccharides, respectively. Whereas, absorption may be defined as the movement ofthese simple soluble digested food componentsalongwithvitamins, minerals and water from gastrointestinal track into the circulatory system.

The process of digestion starts from oral cavity (mouth) and ends at large intestineincluding tongue, teeth, jaws,secretions from salivaryglands (parotids, sub maxillary or submandibular and sublingual glands), pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine and digestive enzymes secreted from pancreas and liver.

The history of digestion experiments dates back to the mid-19th century when the first true trials were carried out at the Weende Experiment Station in Germany. In 1858, researchers Henneberg and Stohmann began their experiments and published their findings in 1860, which condemned Thaer’s hay equivalents and gave results of their experiments. These trials coincided with the chemical analysis of feedstuffs at the Weende station. Even before 1860, studies on nutrient losses in feces had been conducted to calculate TDN (total digestible nutrients). Over time, numerous publications have recorded the results of digestion experiments, with Schneider and Flatt (1975) documenting more than 3000 studies. In India, over 430 digestion trials have been conducted with Indian feeds and fodders at various research stations, as published by ICAR. The wealth of information gathered from these experiments has greatly advanced our understanding of digestion processes and has enabled improvements in animal nutrition practices.
Digestibility
Nutrients in feed are not fully utilized by livestock, with a significant portion being excreted in feces due to incomplete digestion in the digestive tract. Digestibility can be defined as the proportion of nutrients that are absorbed by the animal’s body and not excreted. It is essential for the animal’s growth, reproduction, and overall metabolism. Animals fed highly digestible feed show improved growth and reproductive performance, leading to increased market availability.
The formula for calculating digestibility is simply the difference between nutrients in the nutrient consumed and nutrients found in faeces.
Digestibility = Nutrients in forage – Nutrient in faeces

Reagents

Nuclease-Free Water: 14µl

10X Restriction Buffer: 2µl

Acetylated BSA (1mg/ml): 2µl

DNA (~1µg): 1µl

Restriction Enzyme (10u): 1µl

Final Volume: 20µl

Mixture of nutrientscomprisingcarbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins and water are feed stuffs. From the intestinal wall, very few of such nutrients can pass directly to the body tissues, therefore they must be degraded down into simple compounds before they pass through the mucous membrane of the gastrointestinal tract (G.I.T.) intothe bloodand lymph. This degradation process is regarded as ‘digestion’. Thereafter, the movement of these simple compounds through the mucous membrane oftheG.I.Tract into the blood iscalled absorption. Metabolism is the utilization of these nutrients by the animal body and then excretion of the end products takes place from the body. The digestion of feeds is carried out by three means namely, mechanical action: mastication in the mouth and the muscular contraction of G.I.Tract; chemical action: this is carried out by enzymes secreted by digestive juices and microbial action: this is also enzymatic action, but the enzymes are secreted by microbes instead of host.

In ruminants, it is the rumen which harbours bacteria, protozoa and fungi (Fig. 1) ; whereas in non-ruminants, it is the large intestine (Fig. 2). There are four compartments in the stomach-reticulum, omasum, rumenand abomasums. Reticulumprovides ruminantadditionalspacefor storage.Also, if byanychance, foreign bodies like nails, wires etc. reach over here alongwith feed, they are retained for longer periods and thus, soft organs are protected. Omasum squeezes out water from the feed with the help of its strong muscular walls. In the suckling calves or lambs, the two compartments-rumen and its continuation reticulum are less developed and both are joined by a tube like structure -oesophageal or reticular groove, which directly opens into abomasum. That is why in these sucklings, milk reaches straight into the abomasum, which is the true stomach. Rumen develops at about six weeks of age in these young ones. As these sucklings begin to eat solid feed, both rumen and reticulum enlarge greatly and separate. Now oesophageal or reticular groove does not exist.

Stomach

The stomach of ruminants (Fig. 4-4 A) is compound stomach with four parts; the rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum. The first three compartments comprise the forestomach or proventriculus. These parts have a nonglandular mucous membrane lined by a stratified squamous epithelium and are concerned with maceration, fermentation and cellulose digestion while the last part, the abomasum has a glandular mucous membrane which is concerned with digestion of the food material with the help of gastric juices. The relative sizes of the four compartments change with the age of the animal. In new bourn calf the rumen and reticulum together have about half the capacity of abomasum. But, as the diet of the animal is restricted to milk during this period, these two compartments remain collapsed and functionless. At eight weeks of age, the total capacity of rumen and reticulum equals to that of the abomasum and at twelve weeks of age the combined capacity of rumen and reticulum doubles to that of the abomasum. During this period the growth of the omasum is slow and steady. At about one and half years of age the omasum and abomasum equals in their capacity. At this age the four parts reach to their definitive size, shape and capacity. The relative capacity of the four compartments at this stage is rumen eighty per cent, reticulum five per cent, omasum seven per cent and abomasum eight per cent. The total capacity of average sized cattle varies between hundred fifteen to hundred fifty litre.

18.1 Introduction

The digestive system of fish shows remarkable diversity in its morphology and function, related to both taxonomy and different feeding habits (Abdulhadi, 2005). Fish eat a wide variety of foods. Some feed on plants, others on small fish, and the remainder are omnivorous. The digestive system is drastically altered as a result of different feeding habits. In response to feeding habits, the structural plan of the buccal cavity, pharynx, and rest of the gut has changed.

The digestive system of insects comprises of two main sub-parts, one is the alimentary tract or also known as the digestive tract and the associated digestive glands. These digestive glands may be associated directly or indirectly such as, salivary glands, gastric, caeca (directly) and Malpighian tubules (indirect). If we have to describe an insect and its anatomy, or its histology, it is based on the orthopteroid plan, which is mostly shown by grasshoppers, crickets, and locusts, because their plan shows and describes the basic, primitive design from which other groups of insects have enolved and showed modifications and specialization. We can say that this orthoptera insect shows the general anatomical and histological features of a generalised insect.Today, we see that insects have invaded and adapted in almost all types of habitats and the major reason for their biological success is their ability to show digestion, utilization and their ability to eat an extremely vast diversity of food. It is due to this abilityof extremizm in food diversity that insects have undergone many specializations and modifications of the alimentary canal. What modifications a species of insects undergoes, depends upon the type of insects, depends upon the type of food it consumes. The diversity is also seen in the way of obtaining, storing, processing and absorbing the food. These differences may be structural or functional or both. It is not necessary that these differences must be present in different species only, those may be shown by different life stages of a single insect, by two sexes of a single species, etc. e.g., the difference between the mouths parts of mosquito species.

The digestive mechanism of a pig is ideally adapted to full concentrate-based meals. The digestive organs are quite simple, with a continuous musculomembanous tube from the mouth to the anus. However, this system includes multiple sophisticated interaction functions.

Mouth

The mouth is necessary not only for food consumption, but also for first partial size reduction by grinding. While teeth are the major means of reducing meal size and increasing surface area, when feed is mixed with saliva, the first step in the chemical breakdown of food occurs. The three primary salivary glands are the parotid, mandibular, and sublingual glands. Saliva secretion is a reflex activity that occurs when there is food in the mouth. The amount of mucus in saliva is determined by the wetness or dryness of the meal consumed. As a result, on a dry diet, more saliva mucus is secreted, whereas on a moist diet, only enough is secreted to aid in swallowing. Amylase, the enzyme that hydrolyzes starch to maltose, is present in saliva in very low amounts. Salivary digestive enzymes provide a minor effect. Food is chewed and mixed with saliva before going to the stomach via the mouth, throat, and oesophagus. Oesophageal movement involves muscle peristalsis, or the contraction and relaxation of muscles to move food.

The knowledge of food, feeding habit, anatomical adaptations and the physiology of digestion of the candidate aquaculture species is highly essential to develop cost-effective artificial feed for successful culture practices. The digestion of poikilothermic aquatic fishes and shellfishes is influenced by many factors, and is different from the digestion of terrestrial animals.

2.1.    Anatomy and Physiology of Fish Digestive System
2.1.1.  Feeding Behavior of Fishes

Based on the feeding habit, the fishes are generally classified as herbivores, omnivores, carnivores and detritivores. Within these categories, the fishes further categorized as euryphagous, having a mixed diet, stenophagous, consuming a limited combination of food types and monophagous, accepting only one type of food. A majority of fishes are euryphagous carnivores, and their feeding mode and food types are associated with the body form and digestive system. Fish generally change their feeding habits depending upon the availability of food. Fishes may be classified as predators, grazers, strainers etc. Plankton is a collective term for variety of marine and freshwater plant or organisms that drift on or near the surface of the water. Most fishes eat the material that is smaller than them. The smallest fishes eat these planktons, which act as their main food and all smaller fishes are the food of the bigger fishes. Largest shark feed on plankton by straining these tiny marine plants and animals from the water. The zoo-planktons, comprise protozoa, small crustaceans, jelly fish, and mollusks, together with the eggs and larvae of many species of marine and fresh water.

The digestive system consists of organs concerned with prehension and digestion of food, absorption of digested food and expulsion of unabsorbed food. The digestive system extends from lips to the anus and consists of the primary and accessory organs of digestion. The primary organs include the mouth, pharynx and the alimentary canal (gastrointestinal tube) in that order of sequence. The accessory organs include the tongue, teeth, salivary glands, liver and pancreas. The alimentary canal extends from pharynx to anus and consists of the oesophagus, the stomach, the small intestine and the large intestine. The wall of the alimentary canal consists of, from within outward, the mucous membrane, the muscular layer and the serous layer forming the visceral peritoneum.

Mouth

The mouth is bounded dorsally (roof) by hard palate and behind that the soft palate, ventrally by the body of the mandible along with the mylohyoideus muscles and laterally by the cheeks. The entrance of the mouth cavity is bounded by the lips and it is called as rima oris, while its caudal opening into the pharynx is called as aditus pharyngis. The cavity of the mouth (cavum oris) is subdivided into two parts by the teeth and alveolar processes (the alveoli) of the mandible. The inner part i.e. the space within the teeth and alveoli is termed as mouth cavity proper, while the space between the cheeks and lips and the teeth and alveoli is called the vestibule of the mouth. The mucous membrane of the mouth cavity is continuous with the margin of the lips and the common integument and caudally it continues with the mucous membrane of the pharynx.

Alimentary canal of an insect is a tubular structure passing through the body that provides the special internal environment for the food to be mechanically and chemically disintegrated and brought to the vicinity of absorbent cells. Hence, it is involved in the transport of nutrients to the individual cells. It is concerned with ingestion, trituration (chewing), digestion, absorption of nutrient material into haemolymph and egestion of unused food materials. It is tubular structure, which extends from mouth to the anus. It is divided into three distinct regions, namely fore-gut (stomodaeum), mid-gut (mesenteron) and hind-gut (proctodaeum). The fore- and hind-guts are ectodermal in origin and the mid-gut is endodermal.

Longitudinal and circular (intrinsic) muscles are usually associated with each of these three regions and by means peristaltic contractions move the food along the alimentary canal. The functional stomach is the mesenteron usually a circular valve-like fold separates the cavities between stomodaeum and mesenteron is known as stomodael or cardiac valve, and the one closing the entrance to the proctodaeum as the proctodaeum or pyloric valve.

Fore-gut

An insect’s mouth, located centrally at the base of the mouthparts, is a muscular valve (sphincter) that marks the “front” of the foregut. Food in the buccal cavity is sucked through the mouth opening and into the pharynx by contractile action of cibarial muscles. These muscles, located between the head capsule and the anterior wall of the pharynx, create suction by enlarging the volume of the pharynx (like opening a bellows). This “suction pump” mechanism is called the cibarial pump. It is especially well-developed in insects with piercing/sucking mouthparts.

Alimentary canal : The endoderm is formed by delamination in mammals and birds. This endoderm surrounded by splanchnic mesoderm forms the gut. The endoderm underlying the embryonic disc and serving as a flat roof to the early yolk sac becomes gut endoderm. At 20^th day a rapidly expanding embryonic disc begins to fold into a cylindrical embryo. The gut endoderm also participates as a component layer. Folding first into the head end and then into the hind end of elongating embryo this endoderm necessarily takes the form of the two internal blind tubes. The open end of the each tube where it becomes continuous with the yolk sac is called an intestinal portal while the tubes are named the foregut and hindgut. The caudal end of the hindgut is cloaca. An intermediate region opening ventrally into the yolk sac through the narrower yolk stalk is midgut.

Digging and Filling of Pits

1.    Marking of pits and planting should always be done with the help of planting board.

2.    The guide pegs are installed at both the ends.

3.    One meter deep pits of one meter diameter should be dug.

4.    Top 30 cm soil should be kept on one side, which is used for refilling the pits as it is fertile soil.

5.    Bottom 70 cm soil should be kept on other side, which is discarded.

6.    The pits should be left exposed for a few days before actual planting.

7.    These pits should be refilled with mixture of topsoil, 2-3 baskets of silt and 2-3 baskets of well-decomposed farmyard manure.

8.    The refilled pits should be watered a few days before planting the tree. To each pit add carbofuron (25g) for control of white ants.

Introduction India’s vast and diverse agricultural landscape has one of the greatest agricultural sectors. With over 60% of its people working in agriculture, India’s economy and food security heavily depend on agriculture. In recent years, the world has witnessed many difficulties, including information access restrictions, dispersed property ownership, and uncertainty brought on by climate change. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has emerged as a potent tool for empoweringfarmers, boosting production, promoting sustainable practices in response to these difficulties, and bringing game-changing transformations in Indian agriculture. India ranks second among Asian countries in the advanced user category. On the one hand, profit motivation, corporate expansion, community services, and rural welfare have been the goals of ICT-based agricultural models in India (Spielman et al., 2021).

Introduction
The modernization of farming systems across the country is transforming agriculture. Yet, public extension services often struggle to keep pace with the growing demands for knowledge dissemination due to widen gap between farmers and extension agent i.e., 5000:1 (Ragasa et al.,2013). Also, only 6.8% farmers receive extension services directly from state extension agency (GFRAS, 2012). The complexity of modern farming systems, encompassing decisions about land use, crop selection, and market access, underscores the importance of tailored specific knowledge. Strong public extension services typically reach only about 10% of farmers, a figure further constrained by limited operational resources (Bell, 2015). This gap is exacerbated by limited resources and infrastructure. In this context, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) emerges as a game-changer, offering innovative solutions to address these challenges and empower farmers with crucial insights. The integration of ICT in agriculture is revolutionizing the way knowledge and services reach farmers, especially in resource-constrained and remote regions. ICTs, such as mobile technology, have demonstrated significant potential in extending the reach of agricultural extension services. For instance, mobile hotlines now enable farmers to obtain technical advice and market information, including price updates and market locations (Aker and Mbiti, 2010). Such tools empower users, particularly in remote areas, to access vital information and communicate efficiently (Aker, 2011). To meet farmers’ diverse and specialized information needs, ICT-based models must bridge these gaps effectively. However, the success of ICT interventions depends heavily on affordability and the customization of information to address the highly localized nature of agriculture (McNamara et al., 2011; Bell, 2015).
Digital Choupal
Recognizing these challenges, Bihar Agricultural University (BAU), Sabour, has pioneered an innovative solution by introducing Digital Choupal through videoconferencing facilities at Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVKs) and colleges of the university across the state. This initiative has supported agricultural extension by significantly reducing the barriers posed by distance and resource limitations. Bihar, a densely populated state in India with 1,102 people per sq. km, faces significant challenges in its agricultural sector. Employing around 75% of the workforce and contributing 35% to the GDP, agriculture remains a vital part of the state’s economy. However, technology adoption is slow, particularly in rural areas, due to poor connectivity and limited communication infrastructure. Less than half of Bihar’s villages are connected by roads, and access to trained extension personnel is scarce. These limitations hinder the dissemination of agricultural innovations and the provision of real-time advisory to farmers, which are essential for enhancing productivity and improving livelihoods. This innovative approach has redefined agricultural outreach, ensuring that even the most remote farmers can connect with experts and benefit from customized training and guidance.