eChapters

Whenever we design a scientific study it is designed in a specific contextual background to solve one or another scientific problem. Subsequently it also involves a set of variables/phenomenon operating in a particular context, set of relationships among these variables and the conditions under which they operate. Certainly, to address an unsolved scientific problem we need to carry out research by employing well defined research methodology and have an idea about possible outcomes.  For example when a extension scientist is asked to study the impact of a novel programme, he needs to understand the background and the context under which the programme was introduced, what are the developmental inputs given under the programme, to whom, when (variables), with what purpose (context), what kind of impact he/she is supposed to investigate (presumed relationship), what methods he is going to use to investigate the impact of developmental programme (research methodology) and what are the possible outcomes of the investigation and how programme interventions are related to the outcome (relationship).

Variable is any character or attribute of the given object/set of objects which varies from object to object or from one point of time to another point of time. For example height of individuals is a variable; it varies from person to person.  Kerlinger (1973) defined variable as a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned.

Importance of variables: In previous sections, we discussed about formulating the research problem and development of research hypothesis. Variables are the building blocks of any scientific research problem and research hypothesis. When we consider a hypothesis to be relational hypothesis, we mean that it make claims about relationship between two or more variables. When we test hypothesis, as such we do not test the hypothesis, rather we test the significance of hypothesised relationship between two or more variables. Since variables play central role in observation, measurement and testing of relationship, it is of prime importance to understand the meaning of variables, different types and the way we define these variables.

In previous sections we discussed about the validity and estimation of validity. Now the question is whether the reliable and valid measuring instrument is sufficient condition to ensure the reliable and valid results in actual experiments? What if the measuring instruments are perfectly reliable and valid but the experiment is conducted in less controlled conditions? Can we expect accurate predictions under such conditions? The answer is No.

In previous section we discussed about the ability of the research design to precisely detect the relationship between cause and effect under controlled conditions. But in social research it becomes difficult to conduct the research under highly controlled conditions and moreover many of the researches in social science aim at prediction rather than understanding.

As we discussed earlier, aim of science is development theory, understanding, prediction and explanation of natural phenomenon. In many of the cases we are more interested in predicting the occurrence of social phenomenon rather than explaining it or understanding its relationship with other phenomenon. Under such conditions internal validity is of less use because a relationship that is established in artificially controlled conditions (with high internal validity) may fail to express itself in natural setup due to effect of extraneous variables. When the relationship between cause and effect is weak enough to be expressed in natural setup then it is of less use in predicting the phenomenon. Under such conditions we require experiments that are conducted in nearly natural setup, so that we can generalize the findings of the research to the wider domain.

Sampling is the process of drawing a part of population supposed to be the representative of that population.

Types: Sampling process can be either random or non-random. Most frequently we use random sampling method in our studies. But sometimes the purpose of the study demands for non-random sampling in one or other phase of sampling (Example: When we want to study the impact of life skills development programme on the disabled female beneficiaries)

Hypothesis testing is the statistical procedure used in order to accept or reject statistical null hypotheses. One of the major purpose for which we formulate the hypothesis is, to test the statistical significance of the relation, difference or variation etc. among given sample/s at a given point of time or at different time points.

These materials include barrier coated paper bags, barrier laminated film bags, jute bags, PP woven box bag and cotton bags.
 
A: Paper Bags
    1.    Coated paper:  bags provide a barrier for leaking or staining of the product. This can be done by a greaseproof or claycoated kraftpaper.
    2.    Open-Mouth sacks:  can be manufactured using different types of paper. Simple kraftliner, glossy claycoated and lacquered outerliner are possible. These sacks can be supplied with liners and printed up to 8 colours.

Soil fertility -importance

From edaphological point of view soil is a medium for plant growth. It holds and nourishes the plants. Soil fertility refers to the ability of soil to supply plant nutrients. Soil fertility and fertilizers are very much closely related terms; and cannot be neglected one from the other in their function. Soil fertility acts as a ‘SINK’ where in plants can draw nutrients for maximum productivity, where as fertilizer, acts as a ‘SOURCE’ wherein we can apply continuously different nutrients. The importance of soil fertility and nutrient management is being increasingly recognized in all countries recently to meet the demand for food and other agricultural raw materials. Intensive use of fertilizer, intensive cropping and high yielding seeds have no doubt increased the food production and reduced the food shortage but it has also ushered in innumerable problems of soil fertility, soil and water pollution. On the other hand, fast depletion of nutrients due to over exploitation, a wide spread deficiency of N, P, K and S coupled with micronutrients deficiencies specially Zn, B and Mo is taking place. Further deforestation, shifting cultivation, burning of crop residues, trees, bushes, grasses and cow dung, soil erosion, nutrient losses and imbalanced nutrient application, leaching losses etc., have aggravated the depletion of soil fertility status. The productivity of Indian agriculture solely depends on scientific management of soil fertility along with judicious and efficient use of fertilizers integrated with organic sources.

Fertilizer

Fertilizers are defined as materials having definite chemical composition with a high analytical value that supply essential plant nutrients in available form. They are usually manufactured by industries and sold with a trade name. They are commonly synthetic in nature and also called as chemical fertilizers/inorganic fertilizers/commercial fertilizers other than lime and gypsum. Most of the chemical fertilizers are inorganic in nature.

Synnoyms : Pseudorinderpest, Goat plaque, Goat catarrhal fever

It is a severe rinderpest like disease of small ruminants viz., sheep, goat and wild ruminants characterized by pyrexia, catarrhal inflammation of ocular and nasal mucous membrane, erosive stomatitis, enteritis and pneumonia. The disease is also called goat plaque, kata, pseudorinderpest and  stomatitis pneumo-enteritis complex. The current and standard name of the disease was chosen by the International Workshop of the disease in Ibadan, Nigeria, 1980.

Synonyms : Variola capra

It is a malignant disease of goats characterized by high rise of body temperature and generalized pock lesions.

Distribution : Goat pox has been reported from all parts of the world. Various workers have reported the  outbreaks of the disease from different states of India. It is widely prevalent in W.B. and may attain epidemic proportion with mortality rate of 80% in kid and ~50% in adults.

Synonyms : Variola ovine, ovine pox

Sheep pox causes a severe and highly contagious disease in sheep which is listed in group A disease of the OIE. It is defined as a malignant pox of sheep characterized by fever and generalized development of pock lesions. Lesions first appear as vesicles which later turn into pustules on the exposed parts of the body. There is high mortality rate in lambs.

Distribution :  The disease is in existence since very long in Asia and Europe. It is prevalent in many areas of middle East countries, Africa, Asia and  Mediterranean countries. There are lot of disease outbreaks in India around the year. European Union with the exception of occasional sporadic outbreak in eastern areas of Greece, U.S.A. and Australia are free from the disease.

Synonyms :  Viral bovi. rhinotracheitis, Red nose, I.B.R, Infectious pustular vulvovaginits (IPV), Coital exanthema, Infectious pustular balanoposthitis (IPB), Bovine herpes virus 1(BHV 1).

It is a highly infectious disease of bovine characterized by high fever, rhinotracheitis, conjunctivitis, with a short course and high recovery rate. Encephalitis, the systemic form of the disease in new born calves, infectious pustular vulvovaginits/balanoposthitis are other syndromes caused by the same virus. Genetic isolates of various clinical isolates has found subtypes of BHV 1; a respiratory subtype BHV 1.1, a genital subtype BHV1.2 and an encephalatic subtype BHV 1.3, which is now termed as BHV 5.

Synonyms :  Splenic fever, wool sorter’s disease, Tarka
It is an  infectious disease of livestock and worldwide in distribution. This is a zoonotic disease. It is also  known as splenic fever because of enlargement of the spleen (splenomegaly).

Etiology : It is caused by a rod shaped bacteria of 4-8 µm X 1-1.2 µm known as Bacillus anthracis. It is non-motile, capsulated, aerobic, spore bearing and Gm+  in nature. The organisms  remain in chains. It was the first pathogenic bacterium to be observed under the microscope, the first communicable disease to be transmitted by inoculation of infected blood, the first bacillus to be isolated in pure culture and shown to possess spores and the first bacterium used for  preparation of an attenuated vaccine.

Synonyms : Johne’s disease, Chronic  specific enteritis of cattle, Chronic bacillary dysentery
 
Paratuberculosis (Johne’s disease), an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP), has been recognized as a major disease of ruminants for over a century. It is primarily a disease of domestic and wild ruminants and causes heavy economic losses  in cattle, sheep and goat industry. It is spreading insidiously among animal population worldwide.  Recently it has been shown  that  the disease is not restricted to ruminants only and the host range is expanding to cause disease in other species including Crohn’s disease in humans. In India, the  disease has been occurring  since early 1930s in cattle, sheep and goats in almost every state. The disease in ruminants is clinically characterized by chronic intermittent profuse diarrhea, weight loss, emaciation and finally death.

HELMINTHS 
Collection of parasites

Fresh helminth parasites should be collected, as far as possible to achieve better results in staining. This can best be done by conducting a post­mortem examination of the animal for which the procedure given below should be followed. On opening the body and before removal of the viscera, examine the body cavity (for free lying parasites, e.g. Setaria), subcutaneous tissue (for Parafilaria and Hypoderma larvae) and the surfaces of internal organs for spot or nodules that might contain parasites. Remove them for histopathological examination (in 10 % formalin). Remove the visceral organs separately and place them in different sized enamel trays.

Diagnosis of parasitic infections is routinely done with conventional parasitological techniques as described earlier. However, when the parasitaemia is too low to be detected by the conventional methods as in subclinical infections and/or carrier animals advanced diagnostic tools are used for the early, sensitive as well as specific diagnosis.

Serological techniques

Diagnostic techniques used mostly in laboratories need various reagents and equipments to perform the test. However, a diagnostic kit is the extrapolation of the same method by packing it in a user friendly format, accompanied by all or most of the reagents required to perform the test and can also be done outside the laboratory or under field conditions.

Introduction
 
The emerging functional foods market presents a considerable challenge to all manufacturers to keep abreast of the use of adequate packaging materials for their products. The interest in functional foods is intrinsically linked to the potential health benefits of their bioactive components. Preserving these bioactive components is, therefore, a crucial factor to providing the anticipated health benefits of functional foods. However, recurring failure in maintaining the quality of functional foods has been reported. Functional foods include a wide variety of products such as prebiotics and probiotics, dried foods (fibers, probiotics, tea, herbs, etc.), fermented products (yogurts, kefirs, vegetables), and fresh fruits and vegetables.

Nerium (Nerium oleander L.) belongs to family Apocynaceae is a Mediterranean evergreen shrub characteristic of watercourses, gravely places and damp slopes (Portis et al., 2004 and Herrera, 1991). The first Oleanders came to subtropical Galveston in 1841. Joseph Osterman, a prominent merchant, brought them from Jamaica. After distributing these oleanders, these new plants were growing throughout the city. Later as early as 1908, an editorial in the Galveston Tribune observed that the oleander was emblematic of Galveston. In 1910, The Galveston Daily News also reported that Galveston was known throughout the world as “The Oleander City” and in 1916, an article named it one of the most beautiful cities in the South. It is widely grown as an ornamental in warm temperate and subtropical regions, due to its abundant and long-lasting flowering and moderate hardiness. It is used for screens, hedging along highways, planting along beaches and in urban areas as, by removing suckers and leaving just a few stems, it can also be formed into very attractive small trees (Portis et al., 2004). Nerium oleander is among the most toxic of all ornamental plants. More than fifty toxins have been isolated, including cardiac glycosides, general cell toxins and the strychnine-like compound rosagenin. The ancient city of Volubilis in Morocco took its name from the old Latin name for the flower.

Ageratum is a winter season annual that is grown for its beautiful flowers. It belongs to family Asteraceae. The word “Ageratum” is derived from the Greek words “ageras” meaning non-aging referring to the longevity of the whole plant. Ageratum houstonianum (flossflower, bluemink, blueweed, pussy foot, Mexican paintbrush) syn. Ageratum mexicanum Hort. is a cool-season annual plant often grown as bedding in gardens. Ageratum houstonianum is from Mexico and is named after William Houston (1695-1733), a Scottish physician who collected the first ageratum plants. The flowers are blue in colour (sometimes white, pink, or purple). The ray flowers are threadlike leading to the common name and are used for flower arrangements and potted ageratum plants are used for beautification of the surroundings. Growing ageratum is very easy under suitable climatic conditions. The genus Ageratum consists of some ornamental species, but only a few species have been phytochemically investigated (Burkill, 1985). A. houtsonianum contains essential oil the main constituents were precocene I (23.34%), precocene II (43.99%) and beta -caryophyllene (9.18%) (Menut et al., 1993 and Shahi et al., 1996).

Cosmos is a flowering plant belongs to family Asteraceae. Cosmos bipinnatus is ornamentally important species grown for garden display. The word cosmos is derived from the Greek word “kosmos”, which means a balanced universe or order, harmony and often referred to as Mexican Aster. The species name is from the Latin “bipinnatus” meaning “twice-pinnate” The botanical epithet is from the Latin “pinnatus” meaning “with leaflets arranged in opposite pairs”. Cosmos flowers are produced in a capitulum. Modern varieties come with single or double flowers, picotee edges, and even furled petals in the variety Seashells. Ornamental uses of cosmos include cut flowers and as border annual in the gardens. It is a very popular flower for summer bedding. Cosmos has a pleasant aroma and attracts butterflies to the garden. Essential oil extracted from leaves of cosmos. The major constituent of C. bipinnatus contained 15-17% beta-elemene, 15-17% beta-caryophyllene, 10-21% germacrene D and 12-15% bicyclogermacrene (Menut et al., 2000).

Abstract

The Mesozoic sediments contribute around 54% of the oil and 44% of the gas reserves of the world (Bois et al. 1982). Indian Mesozoic basins occupy an area of about 400 x 103 sq. km and are characterized as frontier basins under category II - IV. These basins are mostly overlain by the Deccan Traps of Late Cretaceous age and are least explored. Deccan Syneclise is one of the largest Mesozoic basins in India, covering an area of ~ 273 x 103 sq. km. Geophysical studies have inferred hidden sub-trappean Mesozoic sediments with thickness up to 2.5 km. It is considered that requisite heat generation due to Deccan Trap volcanism soon after the Cretaceous sedimentation may have acted as a catalyst in hydrocarbon generation. Surface geochemical prospecting surveys along with carbon isotopic studies have been used to assess hydrocarbon generation potential of this part of the basin. The area adjoining Nandurbar beneath Narmada-Tapti region of Deccan Syneclise was selected for geochemical studies where geophysical studies have shown considerable sediment thickness. Surface geochemical studies indicate the generation of light gaseous hydrocarbons, C1 and SC2+ in the range of 3 to 1187 ppb and 1 to 1449 ppb, respectively. The carbon isotopic signatures of selected soil gas samples dC13 CH4 in the range of - 24 to -39.4‰ PDB) suggest thermogenic origin

Abstract

The groundwater behaviour in hard rock aquifer systems has always remained enigmatic owing to the heterogeneity of the aquifer systems. This is the reason why there are a lot of failures in groundwater targeting and management in hard rock aquifer systems even after the employment of many modern technologies. For precise groundwater targeting in hard rock aquifer systems various parameters like lithology, the type and the degree of structural deformation, the degree of weathering, geomorphology, etc., will have to be analysed which involves spatial analysis of voluminous data. In the sphere of spatial modelling, GIS plays an important role. Hence, a newer study has been carried out in parts of Madurai, Dindigul and Theni districts, Tamil Nadu, to identify the groundwater provinces and their functions using GIS. In the said study, GIS images were generated on the groundwater targets through GIS integration of transmissivity, permeability, storage co-efficient and water level. Such GIS image showing groundwater maxima was overlaid with GIS image of fracture maxima, subsurface geology maxima and the geomorphology maxima and thus by various GIS based spatial manipulations, aquifers controlled by structure, geomorphology, subsurface geology, and combinations of the above various variables were brought out. This has provided potential method for precise targeting of groundwater.

Abstract

It is evident from the previous studies that, in the crystalline terrain, the Fractures / lineaments act as master conduits for the groundwater movements and also act as favorable loci for groundwater storage. Because of this, the mapping of fracture patterns has become very popular among geoscientists. However, after witnessing failures and the fractures turned out to be water barren at many instances, geoscientists have started concentrating more on understanding the origin and the morphology of the fractures for precise groundwater targeting. In this context, a study has been conducted in parts of Western Ghats in Madurai, Dindigul and Theni districts of Tamil Nadu, South India, using remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS). In the said study, the maxima zones of transmissivity were studied in relation to fractures systems, which are normally reflected as lineaments in satellite images in the area. This study in general indicates that the transmissivity is controlled by the fractures, which are interestingly the active faults of the Quaternary period in the area.

Seed Germination Test

Germination is the process of emergence and development of seed embryo into a plant under favourable environmental conditions of water, soil, sunlight and temperature. The best example of germination is the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm plant. It reflects the ability of seed to produce a normal plant under favourable environmental conditions. The germination rate of a particular seed lot is a key indicator of its performance in the field.

The adjustment and maintenance of soil pH at a value suitable for optimal crop production is the first step in soil management, because soil pH affects soil properties, nutrient availability and plant nutrition. In India, about 30M ha cultivated  land  suffer from high soil acidity (pH < 5.5). These soils are critically degraded and are of poor health producing crop yields, which are often less than 50% of that in normal soils. Due to this, farmers use much less fertilizers for crops (50 to 80 kg NPK ha^-1), since this is not profitable.

INTRODUCTION

Jewellery has been a favorite form of adornment since time immemorial in all parts of the worlds and Indian is not an exception. The significance of jewellery in the country is evident from the fact that on many auspicious occasions, jewellery forms a part of gifts. Jewellery has not only been considered for the purpose of adoration, but it can also be sold to overcome the economic crisis. This way, jewellery also serves the purpose of insurance, which can be depended upon. To accentuate their feminine beauty, women use jewellery made of gold, silver and diamonds. Traditionally, jewellery has always been linked with wealth, power and status.

INTRODUCTION

Assam is a heartland of indigenous groups. Since hundreds of years, many indigenous groups have been living in the state, maintaining their originalities in every sphere of life with difficulties. The tribal-indigenous groups constitute almost 12.4% of the total population of Assam. (Sentinelassam.com). Fishing is one of the major livelihood option of many indigenous fishers as the state is blessed with huge water resources with about 3.91 lakh hectare of water area in the form of rivers, beel, derelict water bodies and ponds and tanks. Besides swamps and low-lying areas, two major rivers and their tributaries have a high growth potential for fishing and could play a pivotal role in the socio-economic development and employment generation in the state. Indigenous fishers have developed a close and unique connection with the water resources and its environment in which they are depended for generation to generation for their livelihood. They have generated unique system of knowledge, innovation and skills relating to the uses and management of fishing activities. Over centuries, people have learnt how to get food and to survive in different environment. Farmers are very keen to observe the problems arising during fishing and seek solutions to adjust to their local environmental conditions. They continuously adapt and manage their fishing systems and in this way, they develop a rich storehouse of practical knowledge on their situation.

INTRODUCTION

The medicinal values of plants are known since prehistoric times. Interestingly, 13000 BC old drawing on Lascaux caves in France suggests that humans were using plants for medicinal purposes. Ancient Egyptians chewed willow bark to relieve fever and headaches; and thousands of years later, scientists discovered that the bark contains salicylic acid- the active ingredient in aspirin. History reveals that in most of the countries natural products including plants, animals and minerals have been the basis of treatment of diseases both in human and veterinary medicines.
 
Plants as a source of medicine has been an ancient practice and is an important component of the health care system in India. The health management of people and domestic animals is based partially on the exploitation of natural resources, which needs proper documentation and research.

Primary cells are often preferred to established cell lines as they better represent the cells in vivo in terms of activity and functions. On the other hand, there is significant difference between original culture and present culture and even between cultures of the same cells in different laboratories. The rate of growth increases and there is change in chromosome numbers of lines over the time. The differences in phenotypes can cause problems in comparison and interpretation of results. The advantage of cell lines are ease handling, grow continuously, large yield and readily available. Primary cell cultures compared to established cell line are more fastidious in their growth requirements because many cell lines are derived from tumour tissue and demonstrate reduced growth factor requirements.

Abstract

Three villages were selected randomly representing the flood affected areas of Dhemaji district of Assam. Analysed data on climatic parameters like rainfall(mm), temperature(oC), potential evapotranspiration (mm), relative humidity (%) of last 10 years collected authentic sources and depth of ground water table  was collected from the well water depth from the three villages for twelve months showed that the length of growing period was more than 300 days and during July to September the ground water table is above the soil surface i.e. there is flood in this period, but during January to March, it is very low and water becomes inadequate for growing crops. Other climatic parameters are most suitable for both Kharif and Rabi crops, but annual flooding affects the crop during July to September. From the study it was concluded that short duration varieties of different crops like that of paddy, pulses, oilseeds etc. may be grown at pre and post flood condition.

Abstract

Climate change and variability can adversely affect the poultry production in India, because birds can only tolerate narrow temperature ranges. Thermal stress on poultry is major concern. Heat and clod stress can cause immunosuppression and make birds more prone to infectious diseases. Climate change affects the occurrence, distribution and prevalence of poultry diseases.  Nutritional strategies aimed to alleviate the negative effects of heat stress by maintaining feed intake, electrolyte and water balance or supplementation of micronutrients such as vitamins and minerals to satisfy the special needs during heat stress have been proven advantageous. Ventilation and cooling methods are essential for birds to survive high summertime temperatures. Tunnel ventilation coupled with evaporative cooling is very effective in keeping birds cool during hot weather. The increasing proportion of poultry production in tropic and subtropical region makes it necessary to reconsider the selection strategy and potential use of naked neck and frizzle genes for improving heat tolerance in chicken.

Macroclimate : It deals with the study of atmosphere over large areas of the earth and with the large scale atmospheric motions that cause weather. It helps in forecasting weather. OR Climate of a continent or over the complete globe.
 
Macrometeorology : A branch of meteorology concerned with the study of large scale meteorological phenomena over a continent or the entire globe.

Macroscale : The meteorological scale covering an area ranging from the size of a continent to the entire globe.
 
Marine climate : Almost similar and on many occasions used as a synonym to maritime climate. The climate is basically influenced by adjacent seas and oceans.
 
Maritime Climate : The climate experienced in areas and regions near the oceans and seas. It is characterised by hot dry summers and mild wet winters. The diurnal variations of temperature are small and air is with high relative humidity.

Pan Coefficient (Kp) : It is the ratio between reference evapotranspiration (ET_o ) and water loss by evaporation from an open water surface of a pan (E_pan ).
    K_p = ET_o / E_pan

Peat soil : An organic soil containing more than 50 per cent organic matter.

Pan Evaporation : is the value of evaporation from an open pan evaporimeter (usually from standard USWB, class ‘A’ pan evaporimeter) during a day or specified period at a place.

Parcel : A volume of air small enough to contain uniform distribution of its meteorological properties and large enough to remain relatively self-contained and respond to all meteorological processes.

Walker Circulation : A thermally driven longitudinal cellular circulation over equatorial oceans, particularly Pacific Ocean, Peruvian coast, etc. These circulations rise in the West and sink in the East.
 
Warm Air : If the temperature of air is relatively warm as compared to an underlying surface or another adjacent air column or within itself, then the air is said to be warm air.

Warm Front : A front whose movement is such that the warmer air mass is replacing colder air mass.
 
Warm Sector : The state of lower troposphere in between a warm front and the following cold front. 

    ·    Radiology (Roentgenology): the science, which deals with diagnostic (radio-diagnosis) and therapeutic applications (radiotherapy) of radiant energy particularly of X-rays.

    ·    Veterinary radiology: the science, which deals with the uses of radiant energy for diagnostic (radio-diagnosis) and therapeutic applications (radiotherapy) in domestic, zoo, laboratory, exotic animals and birds.

    ·    Veterinary radiologist: a qualified person in radio-diagnosis and radiotherapy.

    ·    Radiography: is the making of film records (radiographs) of internal structures of the body by passing X-rays through the body to act on specially sensitized film.

    1.    X-ray beam collimators: Comprised of 2 independently-acting sets of adjustable lead shutters. These are the devices made of lead and are used to restrict X-ray beam up to a desire area. In diagnostic radiology they are essential for safety of the patients, and persons and also to prevent fogging of films due to unnecessary radiations. The collimator is the most effective of beam limiting devices.

The X-ray film is the major element that record the image of part exposed with X-rays. Although the situation is changing with the introduction of new technologies in recent years. The film can be exposed by the direct action of X-rays, but more commonly the X-ray energy is converted into light by intensifying screens and this light is used to expose the film. The X-ray film is somewhat similar to photographic film in its basic composition. However unlike photographic film, the light (or radiation) sensitive emulsion is usually coated on both sides of the base of X- ray film so that it can be used with intensifying screens. Because of its importance to medicine, X-ray film is manufactured with consistent uniformity and quality, which facilitates standardization of exposure and processing.

Objective of the conservation of forage is to preserve as much as of the crop nutrient as possible. However, during ensilage loss of nutrients occurs. There are five sources of loss. Theses are:
 
    (a)    Field losses 
    (b)    Oxidation or respiration losses 
     (c)    Fermentation losses
    (d)    Effluent losses 
    (f)    Aerobic deterioration

Shock is a life threatening condition which is usually manifested by serious pathophysiological abnormalities. In most cases it is due to poor tissue perfusion with impaired cellular metabolism.

       It is a clinical state resulting from an inadequate supply of oxygen to the tissues or an ability of the tissues to properly use oxygen.

       Shock can also be defined as imbalance between oxygen supply and oxygen consumption. In other words, the delivary of oxygen does not meet the needs of the tissues.

       Shock is a state in which the vital functions of the body are depressed because of acute reduction in cardiac output and effective circulating blood volume.

It is defined as the reaction of living tissue to injury which begins following a sub-lethal injury to tissues and ends with complete healing. The purpose of inflammation is to destroy and remove the irritant and to repair the damaged tissue. 

Causes
    1.    Pathogenic organisms: Bacteria, virus, fungi, protozan and parasites.
    2.    Chemical poisons: Acid and alkalies. 
    3.    Mechanical or thermal injuries. 
    4.    Immune reaction: Antigen antibody reaction.

These specialized instruments are used for operation of skeletal system. Common instruments are as follows :

    1.    Loman bone holding clamp : It is used for holding fractured bony ends with bone plates.
 
    2.    Bone plates : are used for rigid immobilization of fractured fragments. Bone plates are of difference shapes, sizes and with varying number of holes. These are of following types :
 
        a.    Dynamic compression plate.
        b.    Neutralization plate.
        c.    Shcrnab plate etc.
 
    3.    Bone screws : are either used to immobilize fractured fragments or to fix bone plates. They are of different sizes and classified in to cancellous and cortical types.

India is very rich in biodiversity especially in animal genetic resources and animals have been part and parcel of agricultural heritage. There are about 30 well defined breeds of cattle found in different parts of the country. To name a few are Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Gir, Kankrej, Deoni, Tharparkar, Hariana, Ongle, Nagori, Amritmahal and Hallikar. The cattle breeds are classified into three types i.e. dairy, dual purpose and draft/drought animals. The number of the animals of majority of indigenous breeds has declined over the years. Further, their number is very low and majority of cattle population (80%) in India is non-descript. The introduction of systematic crossbreeding program of our native cattle with exotic breeds in seventies have further led to the depletion of prized germplasm of all the indigenous breeds under farm and field conditions. However, considering the importance of indigenous cattle, some of the breed improvement programs have been initiated to conserve and multiply these breeds. The associated herd progeny testing program has been going on at NDRI Karnal for the genetic improvement of Sahiwal cattle. All India Coordinated Research Project on Hariana and Ongole cattle has been undertaken at different centres by Project Directorate on Cattle, Meerut. Lately, three more breeds namely Sahiwal, Gir and Kankarej have been included in the indigenous breed improvement program (IBP) and different centres have been identified as germplasm units and data recording units for different breeds under the program.

The state of Uttaranchal was carved out of Uttar Pradesh on 9^th November 2000 as the 27th state of the union of India and renamed as Uttarakhand. The state is located in western Himalayan region and is one of the geographically smallest states of the country. However, the state is enriched with livestock biodiversity represented by cattle, buffaloes, goats, pigs, horses, mules and poultry.  The climate of the state varies from subtropical in the valleys to temperate on higher slopes with a summer monsoon. The temperature ranges from -5.4ºC (Muketshwar, higher hills) to 40.2ºC (Pantnagar, plains) but it drops below freezing point in many parts of high mountainous areas of the region during winter. Preponderance of hilly terrains and forestland restricts the size of the agricultural land/ holding. The average rainfall recorded in the year 2008 was 1605 mm.  Higher rainfall, abundance of natural pastureland and suitable climatic conditions makes the state favorable for livestock development. The human population was 84.89 lacs with a density of 159 people per sq km during the year, 2001.

Introduction
 
Livestock sector plays an important role in Indian economy and is an important sub sector of India agriculture the contribution of livestock to gross domestic product was 4.7% in 2004-05 with 27% share in agriculture and allied sector. Milk production in India reaching a level of 91 million tones in 2004-05. It is estimated that in milk production 58% of milk was contributed by buffaloes with average lactation milk about 1300 kg. Some of the buffaloes produce as high as 4000 kg but their number is limited. India with 185 million cattle and approximately 98 million buffaloes possesses 20% of the world bovine and 14% of the cattle population. Buffalo population in the country has been increasing at a steady wait with slight increase in productivity. Highest increase in the past five years was observed in Haryana (25.1% ), followed by Uttar Pradesh (20.6%), Madhaya Pradesh (13.9%), Gujrat (13.6%), Uttaranchal (12.2%), Andhra Pradesh (10%) and Rajasthan (6.6%). Productivity per animal is very low mainly due to low genetic potential for milk production, near absence of the genetic improvement programmes, poor plan of nutrition and health measures. 

Abstract

Buffaloes are considered to be the principle milk producing livestock species in India and Surti is one of the well-defined buffalo breeds of India. The study on lactation curve and persistency is very much helpful to know the sustainability of the lactation. The present study is based on daily milk production records for 298 lactations from 130 buffaloes belonging to 15 sires. Lactation curve was prepared through Statistical Packages for Social Sciences programme. Two functions, i.e. gamma function and inverse polynomial functions were fitted to the daily milk yield records. Persistency was calculated through simple analysis in Microsoft Excel 2000 on the weekly records of the milk yield. Gamma function was found to be more effective as compared to inverse polynomial function with higher R2 value for all the four lactations, which indicated that gamma function can be effectively used to establish lactation curve and predict milk yield of animals on any day of lactation. The value of persistency ranged from 97.94% in fourth lactation to 98.56 % in first lactation, indicating Surti buffaloes as fairly persistent in milk production throughout the lactation.

Gujarat state blessed with rich goat genetic resources. Recognized goat breeds in the state are Kutchi, Surti, Zalawadi, Mehsanba and Gohilwadi which have been the integral component of small, marginal farmers, landless labourers and significantly contribute rural livelihood. These breeds excel in drought capacity, disease resistance and better adapted to harsh local climatic conditions under extensive production system. The population status and breeding tract of goat breeds are given in Table 1.

The goat genetic resources (AnGR) of state may be important assets for having the valuable adaptive traits that they have developed over long periods of time, such as:

Introduction

Livestock contribute directly to the livelihoods of nearly one billion of the world’s population. Livestock provide protein and minerals for human consumption, manure for crop production, and fibre and leather for industrial uses. Animals are also a source of draught power. Beyond their role of providing food and inputs for agriculture and industry, livestock provide security to farmers in developing countries, especially in emergencies such as crop failure. To many of the resource-poor, both smallholder farmers and landless livestock keepers, animals are a living bank, facilitating both income distribution and savings. In addition, by consuming crop residues and by-products, in addition to well-managed grazing, livestock production contributes positively to the environment, particularly in mixed crop-livestock production systems. Thus, livestock are an important source of income and employment that contribute to poverty alleviation and enhance the household food security of farmers.

Wind influences the plant life both physiologically and mechanically. Wind affects plant directly by increasing the transpiration and intake of CO₂. Thus raising the supply of CO₂ to the plants and thereby increase in photosynthesis. However, the increase in photosynthesis is again upto a certain wind speed beyond which its rate become constant. The warm and dry winds increase evaporative loss and cause moisture stress. Lodging is one of severe injury caused by strong winds which causes great yield loss depending upon the stage of crop. This injury is common in paddy, maize, wheat, sorghum and sugarcane. Strong winds damage fruit trees extensively by breaking leaves and twigs and causing fruit drops.

The change of state of water form solid or liquid to gaseous form is known as evaporation. It may be defined as the water loss in vapour form from a soil/water surface. The energy used in this process is called as latent heat. The energy of 540 cal/g of water is used in this process. This process plays a major role in the redistribution of thermal energy between the earth and the atmosphere. Water vapour diffuses into the atmosphere from the different natural surfaces like ocean, river, lake, pond, soil and plant etc. It is difficult to measure the evaporation from the natural surfaces. To measure the evaporation from open water surface is easy and is normally in practice. The rate of evaporation is dependent on the size of the measuring surface (Pan) at constant wind speed below saturation point. Therefore a measured surface (Pan) is designed to measure the evaporation.