eChapters

INTRODUCTION

Nearly 60% of the population of the country is dependent on agriculture. Rainfed agriculture supports 40% of the population and 75% of the poorest of the poor in the country (Pant 2001). Therefore, maintenance of health of production base stands as a prime goal to be achieved for sustainable production, prosperity and posterity. Tree culture is highly necessitated for amelioration of climate, soil, production of firewood, fodder, timber, fibre, fruit, gum etc. Hence, agroforestry is a viable option particularly in the Indian context.

10.1 General Description

The soil, water, and biodiversity of the land make up a complex composition. Together, these three components produce goods and services that lay the groundwork for people to live sustainably and in peace with one another. Yet an estimated 3.2 billion people's security, livelihoods, and health are at stake due to land degradation. Any decrease or loss in the biological or economic productive capability of the land resource base is referred to as "land degradation." Natural processes contribute, but humans are primarily to blame for the harm. Degradation is frequently intricately connected to biodiversity loss and the effects of climate change.

Restored lands provide access to clean water, reduce erosion, preserve livelihoods and biodiversity, create forest products, and supply biomass fuel. Trees in agricultural environments can enhance soil fertility, hold onto moisture, and boost food output. Trees and forests slow climate change by storing carbon; intensive restoration efforts may lead to a reduction in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide. Restoration can assist communities in adjusting to the effects of climate change by ensuring water supplies or reducing the effects of severe storms.

Plant cultivation was only a modest activity of primarily nomadic populations in the second millennium BC, and it had little impact on the vegetation. After 0 BC/AD, sedentary civilizations created enormous settlement mounds, and on the dunes, a shifting agricultural system with fields and fallows was constructed. Park savannas, an agroforestry system with protected wild fruit trees scattered throughout the fields, were used for cultivation (Höhn and Neumann 2012). Extensive farming with protracted fallow periods was conducted during the first millennium AD. The composition of the woody vegetation changed as fallow seasons shrunk and the impact of cattle herding on the vegetation increased towards the start of the second millennium AD. The substantially lower species richness of the contemporary woody forest was eventually brought about by declining precipitation and anthropogenic pressure (Höhn and Neumann 2012).

Introduction

Disaster is defined as a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society causing widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses, which exceed the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources (ISDR 2002).

Disaster in Global context - The impact of natural disasters in terms of human and economic losses has risen in recent years, society in general has become more vulnerable to natural disasters. Those usually most affected by natural and other disasters are the poor and socially disadvantaged groups in developing countries as they are least equipped to cope with them (IFRC 2001).

1. Introduction

Disasters are events that occur over a period and cause widespread destruction, suffering, or distress to everything they affect (Oxford English Dictionary, n.d.). The impact of a disaster may be confined to specific areas or widespread and could last for an extended duration, often requiring assistance from external sources to address the aftermath (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies [IFRC], n.d.). These events can arise from naturally occurring phenomena, such as earthquakes, tornadoes, or floods, as well as man-made occurrences, including industrial accidents (e.g., accidental toxic spills or nuclear power plant events) or acts of terrorism (e.g., bombing or poisoning) (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction [UNDRR], n.d.). Disasters typically result in significant harm to infrastructure, loss of life, displacement of people, and severe economic consequences.

Introduction

Disaster may be defined as a sudden event that causes damage to life, property and destroy the economic, social and cultural life of people. It could be of natural or anthropogenic origin. Disasters impact the poor and the most vulnerable section of the community. Over the past 30 years, more than 2.5 million people and nearly $4 trillion have been lost to natural disasters in India; globally the losses jumped from $50 billion a year in the 1980s to $200 billion in the last decade (NIDM, 2019).According to a World Bank report, nearly 75% of the losses are attributable to extreme weather events and climate change threatening to push an additional 100 million people into the extreme poverty by 2030 (Hallegatte et al., 2016). The Bank’s Unbreakable report finds that natural disasters had larger and long-lasting impacts on the poverty. Population growth and rapid urbanization are major driving factors for an increase in the disaster risks.

The United Nations estimates that more than two-thirds of the world’s population will live in cities by 2050 (NIDM, 2019). This could put 1.3 billion people and $158 trillion assets at risk from river and coastal floods alone. According to the Bank’s Investing in Urban Resilience report (2016), by 2030, without significant investment into making cities more resilient, natural disasters may cost cities worldwide $314 billion each year.

Introduction
In the past, the approach to disaster management was relief-focused and restricted to helping the area affected by the disaster. involves a continuous and integrated process of organizing, coordinating, and putting into action measures that are required or advantageous for preventing danger or threats, mitigating risk or its severity or consequences, building capacity through research and knowledge management, being ready to deal with any disaster, responding quickly to any situation that poses a threat to the community, determining the extent or severity of effects, evacuation, rescue and relief efforts, rehabilitation, and reconstruction.
Phases and Elements in Disaster Management
I. Pre-disaster phase: There are three components to the pre-disaster phase: preparedness, mitigation, and prevention.
II. The aftermath phase, encompassing response, recuperation, and restoration. All these components are connected by a structure of institutions and legislation.

9.1 What are Natural Disasters?

The natural disasters are earthquakes, floods, droughts, famines, heat waves, cyclones, wild fire, volcanic, aerosols (small particles), and landslides.

9.2 Disaster Management

Both physical solutions and institutional strategies should be developed to manage natural disasters. For flood disaster control the water flow should be checked. Institutional strategies do not rely on physical barriers and include flood plain management, flood and disaster warning systems, education and preparedness programmes.

Efforts to Mitigate Natural Disaster at National and Global Level

What is A ‘Disaster’?

It as ‘an event that has occurred unexpectedly with destructive consequences’ - (UNOCHA 2005). 
It as ‘a calamitous event resulting in loss of life, great human suffering and distress, and large scale material damage’ - (IFRC2005).
None of the international agencies take animals into account in their definitions

A disaster is any event natural or manmade which creates an intense negative impact on people goods and services and or the environment and exceeds the affected community internal capability to respond prompting the need to seek outside assistance. In other words a disaster is a serious disturbance of a community or society interfere human resources losses and impacts on economically and environmentally or disaster means simply an event has unfortunate consequences on only on human but also on whole environment. Disaster can be two types’ Natural disaster and manmade disaster.

1. The most disaster affected populations in the world - China,

2. Heavy droughts usually occur in Afghanistan.

3. Heavy human causalities due to flood occur in Cambodia.

4. Ring of fire an arc of volcanoes and fault lines encircling the Pacific basin.

5. Occurrence of unusual cold wave Russia.

6. 22 Indian states are prone to disasters.

7. Pre-Disaster mitigation can help in ensuring faster recovery from impacts of disaster.

8. IOC-International Oceanographic Commission.

9. USGS-United States Geological Survey.

10. NOAA-National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrations.

Introduction
There are always going to be natural disasters like cyclones, earthquakes, and floods. They are a component of our surroundings. Nonetheless, the amount of damage caused by natural disasters can be reduced if there is a reliable warning system in place
and the impacted population is ready. Thus, while reactive mechanisms constituted the majority of disaster management in the past, a change towards a more proactive, mitigation-based strategy has been gradually observed in the last several years.
The field of emergency and disaster management focuses on mitigating and preventing potential hazards. It is a field that deals with anticipating catastrophes, responding to them (e.g., emergency evacuation, quarantine, mass decontamination, etc.), and helping to rebuild society following natural or man-made disasters. Generally speaking, emergency management is the ongoing process through which all people— individuals, organizations, and communities—manage risks in an effort to lessen the effect of catastrophes that may arise from those risks. The perception of danger by individuals who are exposed influences the actions that are taken.
Definition
The word “disaster” comes from the French word “disaster.”
A disaster is a state brought on by natural factors in which there is a significant disruption of services and infrastructure that has an adverse effect on the environment, the economy, and human life.

Introduction

A disaster is the result of an immediate situation or the result of a long, set process, which disrupts normal human life in its established social, traditional and economic system. This is due to the destruction of environment which is caused by extraordinary natural destructive phenomena or human-induced hazards resulting in human hardship and suffering beyond recovery unless external aid is brought in.

4.1 Introduction

Discharge is also called as rate of flow. Discharge is defined as the volume of water flowing through a cross section in a unit time. It can be expressed as cubic metre per second (cumec), cubic feet per second (cusec), litre per sec (lps) etc. One cumec is equivalent to 35.5 cusecs or 1000 lps. The measurement of discharge is very important in everyday life starting from deciding the amount of irrigation to be supplied to a crop at a particular growth stage, or amount of water supply for domestic and industrial uses, for flood control and power generation etc. It plays a vital role in water resources planning. If a stage-discharge (also called as gauge-discharge) relationship for a particular gauging site is developed, then daily measurement of discharge in the gauging site is not required. Discharge can be estimated from the developed relationship of discharge versus stage if the measurement of stage is known.

3.1 Introduction

Irrigation water that is supplied to crop fields is defined by a term commonly called as discharge which is also called as rate of flow. Discharge is defined as the volume of water flowing through a cross section in a unit time. It can be expressed as cubic metre per second (cumec), cubic feet per second (cusec), litre per sec (lps) etc. one cumec is equivalent to 35.5 cusecs or 1000 lps. The measurement of discharge is very important in everyday life starting from deciding the amount of irrigation to be supplied to a crop at a particular growth stage, or amount of water supply for domestic and industrial uses, for flood control and power generation etc. It plays a vital role in water resources planning.

3.2 Methods of Discharge Measurement

The various methods of discharge measurement can be broadly classified into the following types: (i) volume method of discharge measurement (ii) flow measuring structures such as orifices, mouthpieces, flumes and weirs.

9.1 Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 The probabilistic laws for dif erent values of a random variable are made on the basis of given conditions. T ese conditions are known as "prior considerations".

Q.2 If the probabilistic laws are made for dif erent values of a random variable on the basis of results obtained from an experiment, then such results are known as "a posterior inferences".9.1.1 Discrete Uniform Distribution

Q.3 A random variable X is said to have a discrete uniform distribution over the range [1, n] if its p.m.f is written as

One of the important studies in the crop improvement programme is the discriminant function analysis. This is a method of exercising selection in plants, which show the extent of which character is genetically related to yield (Goulden, 1959). The technique of discriminant function was developed by Fisher (1936). But, the application of this method for plant selection was first made by Smith (1936) in wheat. He developed an index design for the selection of plant lines in wheat using the concept of discriminant function to derive a linear equation based on observable characteristics as the best available guide to the genetic value of each line.

Stephens (1942) reported about the interaction of yield components within the plant and within the population, which serves as an index for yielding ability. According to Hazel and Lush (1943), selection for a total score or net desirability is more efficient that selection for one trait at a time. The formulae presented by them for selection index give proper weight to each trait that are more efficient than selection for one trait at a time or for several traits with an independent culling level for each trait. According to Darlington and Mather (1949) discriminant function has been defined as a linear compound of series of varieties, obtained by giving the different varieties with individual coefficients which will minimize the difference between classes relative to variation within classes of objects of which the variates are measurements. Mather (1949) reported that these functions afford to the best available means of discriminating the classes and evaluating the genotype of a plant in terms of the observed values of various characters. Pundir and Raj (1971) reported that selection index based on three characters combination i.e., seeds per siliqua, 1000 seed weight and yield per plant was efficient in toria.

ABSTRACT

This work presents the results of multispectral analysis of TM (Thematic Mapper) sensor images on board the satellite LANDSAT 5 for discrimination of selected features of a Nainarmalai region of part of Namakkal District, Tamil Nadu using hyperspectral tools. The spectral classification was carried out using hyperspectral tools namely, a) spectral reduction by the Minimum Noise Fraction (MNF) transformation, b) spatial reduction by the Pixel Purity Index (PPI) and c) manual identification of the end members using the N-dimensional visualizer. The results of study shows that the kinds of features such as magnetite quartzite, sand, harvested land and vegetation area are discriminated well (as given in the figure) and show a strong correlation with landscape.

Keywords: Landsat TM Multispectral Images, MNF transformation, PPI, endmembers, Reflectance spectrum, ENVI software.

1. INTRODUCTION

With a multispectral analysis of an images collected by radiometers and detectors embarked on a satellite, one can make: “spectroscopy by satellite imagery”. Imaging spectrometers or “multispectral sensors” are remote sensing instruments that combine the spatial presentation of an imaging sensor with the analytical capabilities of a spectrometer. With a radiometer such as AVIRIS ”Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer” where the number of spectral bands exceeds the 200, and with a spectral resolution of the order of 10 nm or narrow, it can produce a complete spectrum for each pixel of the image. The case of this radiometer enters on the “Hyperspectral” field. In the case of our study, we are using the radiometer TM (Thematic Mapper), which is on board for the satellite Landsat 5, and which only has 7 multispectral bands, with a spectral resolution of the order of 100 nm. Like finale result, one using the spectroscopy by satellite imagery, we can identify the spectra of various materials which are on various terrestrial surfaces.

This chapter outlines the design of Phase One and Phase Two of the research. It outlines the research approaches and methodology utilized in Phase One and Phase Two of the research. The chapter also provides details of the sampling strategies, data sources, collection and analysis of both the phases; and finally addresses ethical issues.

In the present investigation, nine cyanobacterial species viz. Anabaena variabilis, Anabaena fertilissima, Nostoc muscorum, Nostoc punctiforme, Nostoc linckia, Nostoc commune, Spirulina platensis, Westiellopsis prolifica and Hapalosiphon sp. were tested for their activity pattern against some selected bacterial species.
 
Each cyanobacterial species was initially subjected to determine the early stationary phase of their life-cycle, which is believed to be the most appropriate period for the production of secondary metabolites by an organism. The growth curve for each cyanobacterial species was prepared by culturing them in BG-11 growth medium. Optical densities (OD) recorded at 650 nm were plotted against number of incubation days for each cyanobacterium. After 23-25 days of incubation period, each culture was harvested to obtain the biomass and spent medium, which were then subjected to process of extraction by using various solvents viz., Hexane, ethyl acetate, dichloromethane and methanol. The extracts and spent medium thus obtained were then investigated for antibacterial activity against five pathogenic bacteria including Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pnumoniae and Salmonella typhi.

In the past, there was no targeted development of biomaterial based on scientific criteria. Instead devices consisting of material that had been designed, synthesized and fabricated for various industrial needs (the textile, aerospace, and defense industries) were tested in a trial and error fashion in the bodies of humans and animals. These unplanned and sporadic attempts had modest success. Most frequently, the results were unpredictable, mixed, and confounding both in success and in failure. In addition to traditional medical devices, diagnostic products, pharmaceutical preparations and healthcare disposables, now the list of biomaterial application includes smart delivery systems for drugs, tissue cultures, engineered tissues and hybrid organs. Undoubtedly biomaterial have had major impact on the practice of contemporary medicine and patient care in both saving and improving the quality of lives of the humans and animals4.

Health care is an important way of making sure that rabbits stay productive. Every rabbit keeper should know how to recognize and, if possible, prevent and cure illnesses which can affect rabbits.

It is always better to prevent disease incidence than to let animals get ill and then try to treat them. Allowing rabbits to get sick is expensive for several reasons, sick animals stops growing and reproducing so money is lost with this decrease in production, some disease results in the death of rabbits, replacing the dead rabbits is expensive , treatment for the ill rabbits is usually expensive.

Introduction

In agriculture, plant diseases have always been a major problem, as they cause crop quality to decrease, resulting in yield. Plant disease has a range of effects from minor symptoms to serious damages in whole crop areas, which lead to high financial costs and significantly impact the agricultural economy, particularly in developing countries dependent on a single crop or on a few crops.

Various approaches have been developed to detect disease in order to avoid significant losses. Causal agents have been precisely defined by methods developed in molecular biology and immunology. However, for many farmers these techniques are inaccessible and require detailed knowledge of the field or substantial time and energy to be used. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, most farms in the world are small and family-owned in developed countries. Such families provide food for a significant proportion of the population of the planet. However, hunger and food insecurity are not rare and there is restricted access to markets and services. For the above reasons, a great deal of work has been undertaken in order to establish methods that are sufficiently reliable and available to most farmers. Where Plant disease is an essential factor contributing to a major decline in plant production quality and quantity. Plant disease identification and classification are a significant role in improving plant production and economic development.

Introduction

Most common improvement of host resistance to almost any pathogen is brought about by improving the genetic resistance of the host, that is by breeding and using resistance varieties.

Genetic engineering technology made possible the isolation of individual resistance (R) genes from resistant plants and the transfer of such genes into susceptible plants in which they induce the hypersensitive resistant response.

Thus, genetic engineering technology combined with Conventional plant breeding, will provide one of the most effective tools for controlling plant diseases.

Introduction

Food is the most basic necessity for man. Plants are primary producers of food. Plants are the very pivot of our existence on earth and without plants the earth would be without life. The success or failure of crop production relies on interaction among varieties/genotypes, inputs used, environment and management factors. Plant diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses, phytoplasmas and nematodes reduce crop yields (Khoury and Makkouk, 2010). Arid fruit crops like ber, aonla, date palm, pomegranate and vegetables like watermelon/mateera, kachri, snapmelon, muskmelon, ridge gourd and sponge gourd are mostly grown in Central and Western India. Horticultural crops can be infected by wilt, leaf spots (due to excessive moisture), mosaic and post harvest fruit rots. These diseases are major challenges in the cultivation of horticultural crops in India. Disease incidence in a crop is governed with the seed materials used and environment surrounding seed/plant.

A management tool for anticipating the onset of diseases in plants is called plant disease forecasting. This management method makes use of data on the past, present, and predicted weather in a particular area to forecast the onset and severity of disease in the future. In this sense, a plant disease forecasting system notifies farmers ahead of time whether or not to modify their crop protection strategies to ward against pests. The disease forecasting method lowers financial costs, farmer production loss, and negative environmental effects when it is timely and precisely forecasted. These systems ought to be prepared for diseases like these, which don’t happen often but rather manifest destructively during opportune weather.

Requirements for Disease Forecasting

Systems for forecasting plant diseases are based on the “disease triangle,” which describes how the environment, host, and pathogen interact. Therefore, information on these variables is necessary for the accurate forecasting of a disease outbreak in the future. Following questions and answers cover various aspects of disease forecasting and pathometry, including their impact on integrated disease management, environmental considerations, and specific challenges in different agricultural settings.

Abstract

Climate change is a long-term change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods of time that range from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in the average weather conditions or a change in the distribution of weather events with respect to an average. Climate change may be limited to a specific region, or may occur across the whole Earth.Since, time immemorial human beings have attempted to predict the disease occurrence informally by mere observing the changes in pattern of weather parameters. But the present scenario has been very much altered with the incessant and irrational use of natural resources exposing the atmosphere to the enormous encumbrance. Excessive CO₂ emissions, deforestation and injudicious use of chemicals in agricultural fields have ultimately led to the climate change, which needs an absolute engrossment. Climate change has also invited the emergence and resurgence of many of the pest and diseases posing a grave challenge to manage them. So there is a need for immediate action through Government policies and scientific community to combat the situation. Disease forecasting models may be one of the rescuing options to mitigate the problems of agriculture.

8.1 Disease Prevention and Control in Aquaculture

Aquaculture, the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, shellfish, and plants, faces significant challenges related to disease management. Diseases in aquaculture can result from viral, bacterial, fungal, or parasitic pathogens, and their outbreaks can lead to substantial economic losses and environmental impacts. Effective disease prevention and control strategies are crucial to sustainably manage aquaculture operations and ensure the health and welfare of cultured species.

Key Strategies for Disease Prevention and Control

1. Biosecurity Measures

Biosecurity is foundational in preventing the introduction and spread of diseases within aquaculture facilities. It involves a set of management practices aimed at minimizing the risk of pathogen transmission through various pathways:

• Quarantine Protocols: New stocks should undergo quarantine periods before introduction to production systems. This allows for health screening and observation to detect and isolate potentially diseased individuals.

Importance of fruits in human diet is well recognized since time immemorial. They are important part of a healthy diet as natural sources of energy, essential vitamins, minerals and antioxidants ever since the beginning of humancivilization. Our country is bestowed with varied climatic conditions, which had made it possible to grow diverse group of fruits from its temperate to tropical, to subtropical and even to arid niches. The cultivation of fruit crops is, presently, one of the most important and profitable proposition. Growing fruit crops translate into realization of more yield/ income from a unit area of land than any of the agronomic crops. However, there is need to considerably increase the yield of fruit crops, particularly under changing environmental conditions as under such conditions diseases are getting more prevalent. Therefore by adoption of proper protection practices, yield of fruit crops can be improved.

Plant diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses and phytoplasmas reduce crop yields (Khoury and Makkouk, 2010).Adoption and support for using participatory approaches help to farmers in disease management of fruit crops, reducing costs and improving production efficiency. Fungal, bacterial and viral diseases pose serious threat in the cultivation of fruit crops in India. To reduce the losses caused by plant disease, a complete knowledge of disease management strategies of fruit crops are essential which are as follows:

1. DISEASES OF MANGO

Mango is considered to be the king of fruit. India is the largest producer and exporter of mango in the world. Mango possess unique nutritional and medicinal qualities apart from being a rich source of vitamins A & C, besides its attractive form and appearance, delicious taste and appetizing flavor, the ripe mango fruit according to nutritional experts is also highly invigorating, fattening, laxative and diuretic. Every part of mango from root to tip is used in a variety of ways. This crop is affected by many fungal, bacterial and other non parasitic diseases.

1. Mango Malformation Disease (MMD)

Mango Malformation Disease is a fungal disease of mango caused by several species of Fusarium, some yet to be described. Mango is the only known host of the disease. The disease spreads on a tree very slowly, but if left unchecked, can severely reduce yields. The main method of spreading MMD to new areas is through infected vegetative planting material. There is no evidence that the disease can spread on fruit or the seeds, or that it affects human health. It usually associated with the bud mite, Aceria mangiferae but the mites have been shown to spread the disease within a tree and not between the trees. Mango malformation, also known as bunchy top, is a very serious threat to the mango industry, particularly in northern India. The Etiology of the disease still remains obscure and diverse claims have been made about its causes, e.g., physiological, viral, fungal, acarological and nutritional.

Mango is considered to be the king of fruit. India is the largest producer and exporter of mango in the world. Mango possess unique nutritional and medicinal qualities apart from being a rich source of vitamins A & C, besides its attractive form and appearance, delicious taste and appetizing flavor, the ripe mango fruit according to nutritional experts is also highly invigorating, fattening, laxative and diuretic.

All lagomorphs (meaning ìhare-shapedî) are small to medium-sized terrestrial herbivores. They superficially resemble rodents and in older classifications were even included in the order Rodentia, as both possess a set of continuously growing incisor teeth. It is now recognized that these two orders have long separate evolutionary histories.

Wildlife diseases have gained some good momentum in the recent years due to the complex-linkage with zoonosis, conflicts between wild fauna and homo sapiens in an ascending manner, environmental health care measures etc. Due to this, considerable pressure is there on zoo veterinarians or the field veterinarians working in free ranging areas of forests like national parks, wildlife sanctuaries etc.

Resistance of some plants against a pathogen is due to their belonging to taxonomic groups which are outside the host range of the pathogen. Such resistance is called non host resistance. It is attributed either to genes for resistance (R genes) against the avirulence genes of the pathogen (true, race specific, cultivar-specific, or gene-for-gene type resistance), or to the plants escaping or tolerating pathogen infection due to various reasons (apparent resistance). There are two kinds of true resistance: partial (also called quantitative, polygenic, or horizontal resistance) and R gene resistance (also called race specific, monogenic, or vertical resistance). Several examples of true resistance attributable to, biochemical underpinning or genetic transformation of host plants of major fruit crops viz., apple, pear, apricot, plum, cherry, almond, mango, grapes, banana, citrus, papaya, guava and pomegranate against important plant pathogens are known. Much greater efforts need to be invested, however, for incorporating resistance to diseases in horticultural species because of their huge relevance to socio-economic well being of farming community of the hill regions. The effort in this chapter will be towards synthesizing information which officials of the administrative and development departments can use for drafting plans and policies for promoting protection and up gradation of livelihoods of hill farmers.

Abstract

Palms are generally grown commercially in tropical climate. But some of the palms like coconut, areca nut and palmyra palm are cultivated successfully in West Bengal, Orissa, Assam, and some pockets of Bihar that lies under sub tropics of India.Due to unsuitable climatic factor their production is more affected by abiotic and biotic stress including different kinds of diseases. The important disease are bud rot, basal stem end rot, nut shedding,stem bleeding in coconut, mahali disease, foot rot, stem breaking in arecanut and palmyra palm in the region have negligible incidence of diseases. These destructive diseases are the major constrain in production and causes severe yield loss in these palm fruits. Therefore effective management strategies are required by continuous monitoring the incidence and severity of these diseases caused by different pathogens.

Integrated disease management is the most accepted strategies for sustainable crop production that involves the holistic approach integrating cultural, physical, mechanical, chemical and biological means to control the disease. However, results of the disease management trials depend upon soil condition, age of the crop, stage of disease development and weather parameters of that particular area. Although it is impossible to manage a field free of pathogen but considerable reduction of the disease can be achieved through a proper integrated disease management system. Thus the causes and remedy of the diseases prevalent mainly in palms particularly in subtropical conditions has been reviewed for better management and sustainable production.

Types of Chemicals Used in Disease Management
1. Fungicides: Used to control fungal pathogens, fungicides can either prevent infection (protectant fungicides) or cure infections after they
occur (systemic fungicides). Examples include copper-based fungicides like copper oxychloride and sulfur-based compounds.
2. Bactericides: These are designed to control bacterial pathogens. Common examples include streptomycin and copper compounds, which act against bacterial blights and spots. However, bactericides are less widely used than fungicides due to limited availability of effective products.
3. Nematicides: These chemicals target nematodes, which cause root diseases in crops. Carbofuran & oxamyl are commonly used nematicides.
4. Fumigants: These are volatile chemicals applied to soil to kill a wide range of soil-borne pathogens, including fungi, bacteria, and nematodes. Examples include methyl bromide and chloropicrin.
Contact vs. Systemic Chemicals
1. Contact Pesticides: These chemicals remain on the surface of plants and must come into direct contact with pathogens to be effective. They are most effective as preventative measures.
2. Systemic Pesticides: These are absorbed by the plant and move through its tissues, offering protection from within. Systemic fungicides, such as triazoles, are curative, meaning they can halt an infection after it has started.

When a plant is unable to perform its functions normally, then it is diseased. The two major causes of disease in crops and trees are pathogens and environmental conditions. There are many kinds of disease pathogens: viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, mycoplasma-like organisms, and parasitic higher plants. Fungal pathogens are the most common type. They cause seed rots, seedling damping-off, root rots, foliage diseases, cankers, vascular wilts, diebacks, galls and tumors, trunk rots, and decay of aging trees. Deterrents to establishment include unfavourable weather and environmental conditions such as Temperature and moisture extremes, high winds and ice may directly injure a tree and predispose the trees to pest attack.
Biodiversity plays multiple roles in development as well as ecological sustainability. It has received increased attention in agricultural ecosystems for the past few years regarding the reduction of plant diseases; however, the knowledge of using biodiversity to manage plant diseases is Still incomplete. For crop diversification, the interaction of genetic diversity per se in host populations with identifiable resistance and other functional traits of component genotypes to mitigate disease epidemics is not well understood, and neither is the best way of structuring mixed populations. The mixing of crop varieties can significantly reduce disease epidemics in the field. To achieve the best disease mitigation, growers should include as many varieties as possible in mixtures or, if only two component mixtures are possible. The many strategies, tactics, and techniques used in disease management can be grouped under very broad principles of action. The differences between these principles are often not clear. The simplest system consists of two principles, prevention (prophylaxis in some early writings) and therapy (treatment or cure). The first principle (prevention) has to do with disease management practices applied before infection-that is, the plant is protected from disease.

Abstract

The disease is an output of the interaction among host, pathogen, and the environment over a period of time. Given that a susceptible host and an aggressive pathogen are available, weather determines the intensity of the disease over time. To capture the dynamics of the interactions among these biophysical variables, efforts have been made in the past to understand the variables per se and their interactions through modeling approaches.  The important weather parameters are temperature; rainfall/dew; leaf wetness period, wind, bright sunshine hours all of which are in turn influenced by soil properties. The important parameters of host that can influence disease development are susceptibility; growth stage and form; structure and density of the plant population and overall health. For pathogen, to cause disease, it should be present in the vicinity, pathogenic, adaptable with reproductive fitness and possess efficiency of survival and dispersal. 

Introduction
Vegetable crops are highly susceptible to biotic stresses indicated by disease causing micro-organism (fungi, bacteria, virus and phytoplasma). Indiscriminate use of chemicals for the control of diseases, insect pest have
several disadvantages, particularly increased cost of cultivation, residual toxicity in food chain and development of resistance against pathogen. Management of diseases involves use of resistant varieties and integration of cultural and chemical control measures. Of the biotic stresses much of the breeding efforts have been directed towards developing resistance against diseases. In fact, breeding for resistance, has been one of the most important objective of vegetable breeder in the last half of the century. Genes that contribute to pathogen tolerance/resistance can be obtained from local germplasm resources, or through exotic lines, wild species or genera, or lines from other breedingprograms. In the biotechnological approaches for vegetable breeding also,  most of the achievement has been to generate transgenic plants resistance to disease. Often breeding for resistance has assumed greater importance in a number of vegetable crops.
Major Diseases of Tomato
Early blight: The casual organism is Alternaria solani. The symptoms appears as small, black spots with enlarged and concentric rings in a bull’s eye pattern in the center of the leaves. Tissue surrounding the spots may turn yellow. On fruits, dark brown concentric rings are seen that affects the market quality.

The disease , referred as the disorder of crop plants caused by fungi, mycoplasma, bacteria and viruses. Plant resistance is one of the most effective and ideal approach to combat diseases and insect-pest. Resistance is the capacity of plants to resist, withstand and overcome the attack of pathotypes.

Mechanism of Disease Resistance

Different mechanism of disease resistance are as under:

1. Disease escape

The ability of susceptible host plants to avoid attack of disease due to environmental factors like early maturing varieties, shift in the date of planting, change the field, balanced application of NPK etc. Example., early maturing varieties of groundnut and potato may escape from ‘Tikka’ and ‘Late blight’ diseases respectively.

2. Disease tolerance

The ability of the plants to tolerate the attack of the pathogen without loss or little loss in the yield. This endurance is brought about by the influence of external characters. Generally, tolerance is difficult to measure since it is confounded with partial resistance and disease escape. Disease tolerance is of three types:

Climate change in particular global warming affect the health of the animals both directly and indirectly. Direct effects include temperature associated diseases like heat stroke and death and morbidity of animals during extreme weather conditions. Indirect effects include those deriving from attempt to adapt to changing environment or influence of climate on microbial populations, distribution of vector borne diseases, host resistance to infectious agents, feed and water shortages or food borne diseases. Among infectious diseases vector borne diseases and diseases caused by agents who have a stage in the environment are more likely to be affected than other diseases. The assessment of impact of climate change on animal diseases is challenging because there are several factors affecting the disease dynamics. But once the risk of potential diseases and their transmission routes are identified, the disease forecasts can be generated and control measures can be implemented to reduce the risk of such diseases.

Occasionally anglers catch fish that show signs of infection or parasitism. Is the fish safe to eat? The usual and safest response to this question is, “When in doubt - don’t.” However, very few fish diseases can be transferred to humans. Almost all fish are safe to eat when thoroughly cooked, smoked or frozen.

Fishes are a valuable resources for hill streams and temperate region people. Not only do they provide important recreation, but they are also a valuable supplement to the family food budget. The anticipation of any fisherman, whether he be a young boy with a cane pole and a can of worms or an “old pro,” is a quality fish for the table. It is the unwritten law of any true sportsman to utilize the fish he catches. The purpose of this publication is to help you, the angler, determine if the fish you’ve caught is worthy of your skillet. Remember, a sick fish will not take the hook (Taraschewski, 2000).

19.1 Introduction
Mulberry silkworm, Bombyx mori, is affected by a number of diseases caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa. These illnesses are recognized to occur in practically every region where silkworms are raised in the world seriously harming the harvest of silkworm cocoons. Several actions have been proposed as a means of preventing and managing the illnesses, but none of them had shown signs of foolproof with the outcome that one must consistently be cautious to eradicate the core infection’s source in addition to avoiding crossinfection. Additionally, care has to be taken in order to ensure that they are not exposed to stressful circumstances such as low temperature and inadequate nourishment, poor ventilation, and humidity which could lead them easily susceptible to various diseases.
19.2 Diseases of Mulberry Silkworm and Their Control
19.2.1 Protozoan Diseases
The protozoa that harm silkworms are the parasitic ones from the genera Nosema, Pleistophora, and Thelohania and class Microsporidia. In addition to this, reports of Leptomonas and Trypanosoma infections in the silkworm
Bombyx mori L. have been made. However, the pebrine disease is the main protozoan illness of the silkworm. It is also known as ‘pepper disease’ because of the development of areas of black pepper after infection.

Definition

Plant disease in which no pathogens or parasitic is associated with the cause is known as Non-parasitic disease. They are also called as noninfectious or physiological disorders.

General Characteristics

Occurs in the absence of pathogen and therefore, cannot be cultured or transmitted.

Caused by the lack or excess of something that supports life from diseased to healthy plants.

Effect plant in all stages of their lives, such as seeds, seedlings, mature plants or fruits.

Symptoms may range from slight to severe & affected plants may even die.

These disease cause damage in field, in storage or at the market.

DISEASES OF RABBITS

The Disease Occurrence in rabbit colony is minimal if good sanitation and hygiene measures are followed.

Diseases are caused by Bacteria, Viral, Parasitic and managemental.

Bacterial Disease

Pasteurellosis → similar to Haemorrahgic septicaemia

Organism → Pasterurella multocida

Affects respiratory system with difficulty in breathing. Temperature 103 ° F Occulonasal discharge observed.

Lab → Blood smear shows bipolar organisms by Giemsa stain.

Treatment → Sulpha drugs, long acting tetracyclines.

General evidence of deficiency include either nutrient deficiency in diet or abnormal absorption, utilization or requirement of nutrient under consideration.
Special evidence may be obtained by chemical or biochemical examination of diet.

Human life on the earth has been intertwined with the fabric of crops and livestock for its sustenance, since time immemorial, for food and protection against the vagaries of nature. When agricultural and livestock production systems began to change in the 1950s, from traditional extensive systems to semi-intensive and intensive production systems, diseases of rural farm enterprises became challenging. Especially, the emerging diseases in livestock continued to demand more and more investments for ensuring food safety and security. Despite significant progress made in the recent past in reducing the prevalence of animal diseases, there is still an increasing concern over the losses associated with diseases of economic importance that result in production inefficiency. The scientific foundation for the discipline of animal health economics was laid by Morris (1969) and further steps were taken by Ellis (1972) to economically evaluate the Swine Fever eradication programme in Great Britain using cost-benefit analysis, Martin Hugh-Jones (1975) to specialize in GIS to model diseases and assessed the economic impact on production by infectious diseases, James and Ellis (1978) to use the same tool for FMD control programme, Renkema and Stelwagen (1979) to evaluate the replacement rates in dairy herds, Renkema (1980) to analyze the economic aspects of diseases in animals, Ellis and Putt (1981) to suggest the epidemiological and economic implications of FMD vaccination programme in Kenya, and McInerney (1983) to analyze the economics of animal diseases in dairy cattle, the multidisciplinary field of animal health economics was not amply exploited especially in developing countries to assess the extent of livestock disease losses (Ngategize and Kaneene, 1985).