eChapters

Introduction
Q fever is a zoonotic bacterial infection caused by Coxiella burnetii, an obligate intracellular parasite, classified within the family Rickettsiaccae. Q fever (Q for “query”) was first used in 1937 to describe a mysterious febrile illness of packing house workers in Brisbane, Australia. The causative agent was isolated from infected workers and later was identified as Rickettsiae. Almost simultaneously the same organism was identified wood tick collected in Montana. Cox, an American, and Burnet, an Australian, where honored for their early work with this organism, hence the name “Coxiella burnetii”.
Host and Susceptibility
Coxiella burnetii is a well-established infectious agent that has reached a state of balanced pathogenicity in a plethora of host. Human are unnatural and usually dead-end-host. The microorganism generally maintained in a less pathogenic form in separate cycle existing independently among wild mammals and their haematophagus arthropods, principally tick and in domestic animals.
Morphology
It is an intracellular organism which is a polymorphic bacillus (0.2-0.4mm width, 0.4-1.0 mm length), which has a cell membrane, like Gram negative bacteria. However, it stains poorly with pigmented Gram stain, but gimenez staining is traditionally used to stain the Coxiella burnetii pathogen from pathological materials and crop. Coxiella burnetii has several distinctive characteristics, including a sporulationlike
process that protects the organism against the external environment, where it can survive for long periods. In mammals, the usual host cell of C. burnetii is the macrophage, which is unable to kill the bacterium. The other an important characteristic of C. burnetii is its antigenic variations, those called phase variation. This antigenic shift can be measured and is valuable for differentiating acute from chronic Q fever. Thus, it displays two antigenic phases those are phase-I and phase- II that are liable to the Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of the membrane.

The mycoplasmas are microorganisms in the class Mollicutes. Of the nine genera in this class, five contain species of veterinary interest. The genus Mycoplasma, in which there are about 100 species, contains most of the animal pathogens. The first mycoplasma identified in 1890 was Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides, the cause of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia. Similar types of mycoplasmas which were subsequently identified were called pleuropneumonia- like organisms (PPLO).
Mycoplasmas, the smallest prokaryotic cells capable of self-replication, are pleomorphic organisms ranging from spherical (0.3 to 0.9 pm in diameter) to filamentous (up to 1.0 μm long). Because they cannot synthesize peptidoglycan or its precursors, they do not possess rigid cell walls but have flexible, triplelayged outer membranes.
Their flexibility allows them to pass through bacterial membrane filters of pore size 0.22 to 0.45 μm. Mycoplasmas are susceptible to desiccation, heat, detergents and disinfectants. However, they are resistant to antibiotics such as penicillin which interfere with the synthesis of bacterial cell walls. Based on 5s rRNA sequence analyses, the mycoplasmas have been shown to be linked phylogenetically to Gram-positive bacteria such as Clostridium species which have low guanine-cytosine content in their DNA. They require enriched media for growth, characteristically forming umbonate micro-colonies
when illuminated obliquely and microcolonies with a ‘fried egg’ dppearance in transmitted light. The dense central zone is due to extension of the microcolony into the agar. Mycoplasmas, which have relatively small genomes (approximately 800 genes) are fastidious in their growth requirements.
Most mycoplasmas are facultative anaerobes and some grow optimally in an atmosphere of 5 to 10% CO2. Nonpathogenic anaerobic mycoplasmas are found in the rumens of sheep and cattle. The genera Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma contain animal pathogens.

15.1 Biopiracy – Definition, Examples, and Impacts
Introduction
Biopiracy represents a grave ethical and legal concern in the field of biotechnology and intellectual property rights. It refers to the unauthorized and uncompensated exploitation of biological resources and traditional knowledge—primarily from developing countries—by corporations, research institutions, or individuals, often for commercial gains. Biopiracy is inherently unjust as it involves the misappropriation of community knowledge, undermining the rights of indigenous peoples, and violating the principles of equity, fairness, and sovereignty over natural resources.
As globalization intensifies biotechnological exploration, biopiracy challenges ethical norms and highlights the need for strong legal, institutional, and ethical safeguards.
Definition of Biopiracy
Biopiracy can be defined as:
“The unauthorized extraction, use, and commercialization of genetic resources or associated traditional knowledge from indigenous communities or biodiversity-rich regions without prior informed consent or fair and equitable benefit sharing.”
Biopiracy often involves patenting biological materials or indigenous medicinal knowledge without recognizing the origin communities as rightful holders of such knowledge or genetic wealth. It is closely linked to ethical misappropriation, exploitation, and violations of bioethical norms and international agreements.

14.1 Ethics in Scientific Research and Innovation
Introduction
Scientific research and innovation in biotechnology, particularly in the realms of genetic engineering, genomics, and transgenic organisms, bring immense promise for advancing agriculture, health, and environmental sustainability. However, this progress must be balanced with strong ethical foundations, as the misuse or careless application of biotechnological innovations can lead to irreversible harm to humans, society, and the biosphere. The term bioethics encapsulates the principles of morality, justice, and responsibility that should govern all scientific inquiry and technological development.
Ethics in scientific research and innovation is not merely an adjunct to regulatory compliance—it is a core component of scientific integrity and social responsibility. It ensures that biotechnological advances are developed in ways that respect human dignity, safeguard biodiversity, and reflect societal values.
1. Fundamental Ethical Principles in Scientific Research
Ethical decision-making in science is guided by several foundational principles, adapted from biomedical and research ethics. These include:

13.1 Biosafety Research Trials: Scope and Implementation
Introduction
Biosafety research trials serve as a critical phase in the evaluation and regulation of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), particularly transgenic crops and microorganisms. These trials assess potential environmental and health impacts under confined and controlled conditions before the organism can be considered for commercial release. With the expansion of biotechnology applications, especially in agriculture, pharmaceuticals, and industrial processes, the need for scientifically rigorous and ethically sound biosafety research trials has become increasingly important.
13.1.1. Scope of Biosafety Research Trials
1.1. Definition and Objectives
Biosafety research trials are confined, stepwise, and monitored field or laboratory-based studies designed to evaluate the safety, stability, performance, and unintended effects of GMOs. The overarching objectives include:
• Assessment of potential risks to human health, non-target organisms, and the environment.
• Evaluation of gene stability, trait expression, and environmental adaptability.
• Monitoring of gene flow and potential invasiveness or weediness.
• Determination of agronomic efficacy under field conditions.
• Data generation for regulatory dossiers and risk assessment reports.

12.1 Monitoring Strategies: Pre- and Post-Release
12.1.1 Introduction
Monitoring of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) or transgenic crops is a critical component of biosafety governance. It involves the systematic collection of scientific data to assess the presence, behavior, and potential impacts of transgenic organisms in controlled and natural environments. Monitoring strategies are divided into two principal stages:
1. Pre-release monitoring, which takes place during confined field trials, and
2. Post-release monitoring, conducted after commercial or environmental release.
These strategies ensure that transgenic technologies are introduced responsibly, maintaining human safety, ecosystem integrity, and regulatory compliance.
12.1.2 Objectives of Monitoring
• To evaluate the biosafety and efficacy of GMOs in different environments.
• To detect unexpected adverse effects on human health or the environment.
• To monitor gene flow, resistance development, or weediness.
• To ensure compliance with biosafety regulations, stewardship programs, and licensing agreements.
• To maintain public trust and provide transparency in GM deployment.

Five genospecies of intestinal spirochaetes have been isolated from pigs namely Brachyspira hyodysenteriae,B. pilosicoli, B. innocens, Serpulina intermedia and S. murdochii. The genera Serpulina and Brachyspira were recently combined. These anaerobic spirochaetes have six to fourteen spirals and are 0.1 to 0.5 μm in width.
Usual Habitat
Pathogenic Brachyspira species are found in the intestinal tract of both clinically affected and normal pigs. Carrier pigs can shed B.hyodysenteriae for up to three months and are the principal source of infection for healthy pigs.
Differentiation of Brachyspira Species
The differentiation of B.hyodysenteriae from other intestinal spirochaetes is based on its pattern of haemolysis on blood agar. Tests for detecting indole production or the hydrolysis of hippurate are also useful diagnostically. Restriction endonnclease analysis, restriction fragment length polymorphism, ribotyping using 16s rRNA analysis, PCR-based assays and multilocus enzyme electrophoresis have been developed both for differentiating species and for distinguishing strains of organisms within species. Brachyspira hyodysenteriae isolates can also he allocated to several serogroups and serotypes.
Pathogenesis
Most information on the pathogenesis of Brachyspira species derives from studies of B.hyodysenteriae. Motility in mucus is an essential virulence factor of thisorganism; mutant strains with altered motility are lesscapable of colonizing the pig intestine. Colonization may be enhanced by factors in mucuswith chemotactic activity for the organisms. Factors with such chemotactic activities have been demonstrated in vitro. Haemolytic activity,demonstrated in vitro, correlates with pathogenicity andthree genes encoding haemolytic and cytotoxic activityhave been cloned and sequenced.

11.1 Principles and Framework for Risk Assessment
11.1.1 Introduction
Risk assessment is an indispensable scientific tool in evaluating the safety and potential impacts of genetically modified (GM) crops on human health, animal welfare, and the environment. It provides a structured, evidence-based framework for identifying hazards, characterizing risks, and proposing mitigation strategies before the approval and commercialization of GMOs. In the context of biotechnology and regulatory biosafety, risk assessment ensures that GM crops meet both national and international standards for biosafety and sustainability.
11.1.2 Definition of Risk Assessment
Risk assessment is defined as the systematic process of identifying, evaluating, and characterizing the potential adverse effects arising from exposure to a GMO or its products, under specified conditions of use.
Risk = Hazard × Exposure
Where hazard is the potential to cause harm, and exposure is the likelihood of encountering the hazard.
11.1.3 Objectives of Risk Assessment in GM Crops
• To evaluate the safety of GM crops for human and animal consumption.
• To assess the potential environmental impacts, including effects on biodiversity, gene flow, and ecosystem interactions.
• To ensure that regulatory decisions are science-based, transparent, and precautionary.

10.1 Public Concerns About GMOs
10.1.1 Introduction
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs), particularly transgenic crops, represent one of the most transformative breakthroughs in modern biotechnology. Despite their promise to address global challenges such as food insecurity, pest infestations, and climate resilience, GMOs have also triggered significant public concern. These concerns, though varying across regions and socio-political contexts, typically revolve around human health, environmental safety, ethical considerations, corporate control, and regulatory transparency. Understanding these public apprehensions is crucial for biosafety policymaking and responsible biotechnology governance.
10.1.2 Human Health-Related Concerns
A. Allergenicity and Toxicity
One of the most widely voiced apprehensions is that transgenic foods might introduce new allergens or toxic compounds into the food chain. The insertion of foreign genes, particularly from non-food species (e.g., bacteria, viruses), raises the possibility that novel proteins could elicit allergic responses or metabolic imbalances in humans.
Example: The case of a transgenic soybean incorporating a Brazil nut gene was withdrawn from commercialization after tests indicated it could cause allergic reactions in individuals sensitive to tree nuts.

Borreliae, which are longer and wider than other spirochaetes, have a similar helical shape. In addition to a linear chromosome, which is unique among bacteria, borreliae possess linear and circular plasmids. Although these spirochaetes can cause disease in animals and humans, subclinical infections are also common. Borreliae are transmitted by arthropod vectors.
Usual Habitat
Borreliae are obligate parasites in a variety of vertebrate hosts. Although these organisms persist in the environment for short periods, they depend on vertebrate reservoir hosts and arthropod vectors for long-term survival.
Differentiation of Borrelia Species
Borreliae can be differentiated from other spirochaetes by their morphology, by the low guanine and cytosine content of their genomic DNA and by ecological, cultural and biochemical characteristics. Identification of Borrelia species depends mainly on genetic analysis. At least nine genospecies or genomic groups of B.burgdorferi sensulato, have been identified using DNA-DNA hybridization, 16s rRNA sequencing and other molecular techniques.
Clinical Infections
The species of particular veterinary importance are B. burgdorferi sensu lato, the cause of Lyme disease in animals and humans, and B. anserina which causes avian borreliosis. The significance of two other species, B.theileri andB.coriaceae, as animal pathogens, is uncertain.
Lyme Disease
This condition, also known as Lyme borreliosis, was first identified in 1975 following investigation of a cluster of arthritis cases in children near the town of Old Lyme, Connecticut. The causative agent, a spirochaete, was named Borrelia burgdorferi.

9.1 The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety: Objectives and Implementation
9.1.1 Introduction
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB) is a pivotal international legal instrument under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), dedicated to regulating the transboundary movement, handling, and use of living modified organisms (LMOs) derived through modern biotechnology that may adversely affect biological diversity, human health, or the environment. Adopted in January 2000 in Cartagena, Colombia, and entering into force on September 11, 2003, the Protocol represents a global consensus on biosafety governance amidst the rapid expansion of genetic engineering technologies.
9.1.2 Objectives of the Cartagena Protocol
The principal objective of the Cartagena Protocol is:
“To contribute to ensuring an adequate level of protection in the field of the safe transfer, handling and use of living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health, and specifically focusing on transboundary movements.” (Article 1, CPB)
The core objectives can be summarised as
• Ensuring biosafety in the context of international trade of LMOs.
• Protecting biodiversity from potential risks posed by LMOs.
• Safeguarding human health against unintended exposure to transgenic organisms.

Members of the genus Serpulina (Treponema) are host-associated spirochaetes found in the oral cavity, intestinal tract and genital region of animals and humans. The cells are wider, are not as tightly coiled as th e leptospires and can be stained by aniline dyes.
The species of veterinary significance are S. Hyodysenleriae (swine dysentery) and T. paraluiscunicllii (ventdisease of rabbits). S. innocens, present in the faecesof pigs and dogs, is thought to be non- athogenic,although some workers regard S. innocens as a strainof S. hyodysenteriae of lower virulence. S. hyodysenteriae and S. innocens are s imilarmorphologically, culturally as well as biochemicallyand can be grown on laboratory media. T. Paraluiscuniculi has not been cultured in vitro.
Normal Habitat
T. paraluiscliniculi produces a benign venereal disease of rabbits and is present in lesions in the genito-perineal area of rabbits. It causes latentin fection in mice, guinea- pigs and hamsters. The treponemes can be found in the lymph nodes of these animals. The reservoir of S. hyodysenteriae is the intestinal tract of pigs, wild rats and mice. Recovered, asymptomatic pigs can excrete these organisms in faeces for 3 months or more. Survival of S. hyodysenteriae in soil or voided pig faeces is short, about 24 48 hours. Infection is by the faecal-oral route.

8.1 Steps in Biosafety Risk Assessment
8.1.1 Introduction
Biosafety Risk Assessment is a systematic, science-based process used to identify, evaluate, and mitigate risks associated with handling biological agents, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and biotechnological products. It is central to ensuring human safety, environmental integrity, and regulatory compliance in both laboratory and field applications.
A well-conducted biosafety risk assessment enables institutions to establish appropriate biosafety levels, implement containment measures, and ensure sustainable and responsible use of biotechnological advancements.
8.1.2 Key Objectives of Biosafety Risk Assessment
• Prevent exposure of personnel to biohazards.
• Avoid environmental contamination and unintended gene flow.
• Determine containment requirements for biological agents.
• Guide institutional and national biosafety decision-making.
• Support regulatory frameworks and compliance obligations.

7.1 Definitions and Classifications of Biohazards
7.1.1 Definition of Biohazards
Biohazards, or biological hazards, refer to biological substances that pose a threat to the health of living organisms, primarily humans, animals, and plants. These substances include a broad spectrum of infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, parasites, recombinant or synthetic nucleic acid molecules, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and biological toxins. Biohazards can arise from research laboratories, agricultural practices, biotechnology industries, healthcare settings, or naturally occurring infectious diseases.
In biotechnology and molecular biology, biohazards are particularly significant due to the frequent use of genetically modified microbes, transgenic plants and animals, and gene-editing tools that may unintentionally cause ecological disturbances or health risks if not properly contained and managed.
7.1.2 Understanding Biosafety in the Context of Biohazards
Biosafety is the application of containment principles, facility design, practices, and procedures to prevent unintentional exposure to biohazards or their accidental release. It forms the foundational pillar in laboratories and institutions engaged in biotechnology, genetic engineering, and molecular biology.
The goal of biosafety is twofold
• To protect laboratory personnel, the community, and the environment from potential harm caused by biological agents.

The order Spirochaetales contains two families, Leptospiraceae and Spirochaetaceae. It comprises spiral or helical bacteria (spirochaetes) which share some unique morphological and functional features. Members of the order are motile by means of endoflagella which are located within the periplasm.
The spirochactes are slender, motile, flexuous, unicellular, helically coiled bacteria ranging rrom 0.1 -3.0 μm in width. The outer sheath, the outermost layer of a spirochaete cell, is a multi layered membrane that completely surrounds the peri plasmic flagella (axial filament) and the helical protoplasmic cylinder. The cylinder consists or the nuclear material, cytoplasm, cytoplasmic membraneand the peptidoglycan portion of the cell wall.
The periplasmic flagella are wrapped around the cylinder and are in the peri plasmic space of these Gram-negative bacteria. One end of each flagellum is inserted near a pole of the protoplasmic cylinder and attached by platelike structures called insertion discs. The distal end of each flagellum is not inserted and extends to the centre of the cell and may overlap the flagellum from the opposite end. The periplasmic flagella facilitate the motility of the bacteria in viscid environments.
Leptospira species
Members of this species (leptospires) are motile helical bacteria (0.1 x 6 to 12 μm) with hook-shaped ends. Although cytochemically Gram-negative, they do not stain well with conventional bacteriological dyes and are usually visualized using dark-field microscopy. Silver impregnation and immunological staining techniques are used to demonstrate leptospires in tissues. Leptospirosis, which can affect all domestic animals and humans, ranges in severity from mild infections of the urinary or genital systems to serious systemic disease.

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) refer to the legal rights granted to creators, inventors, and innovators for their intellectual creations. These rights enable individuals or organizations to control and benefit from the use of their creations for a certain period. In the era of rapid advancements in biotechnology and molecular biology, IPR has emerged as a cornerstone in protecting and commercializing innovations in plant genetics, genetic engineering, bioproducts, and molecular tools.
The concept of IPR is rooted in the recognition that ideas, like physical property, hold economic value and deserve legal protection. IPR plays a pivotal role in encouraging innovation, fostering technology transfer, promoting research investment, and ensuring economic returns to developers. In biotechnology, IPR has direct implications on transgenic technologies, bioinformatics, novel genes, enzymes, diagnostic kits, and biopharmaceuticals.
1.1 Evolution and Historical Background of IPR
1.1.1 Introduction
The concept of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) has evolved over centuries as a legal framework to protect creations of the human intellect. While the terminology “intellectual property” is relatively modern, the underlying idea—that inventors, artists, and creators deserve recognition and protection for their innovations—has ancient roots. In the context of modern biotechnology, IPR serves not only as a legal safeguard but also as a vital tool to stimulate innovation, secure investments, and promote equitable commercialization.
Understanding the historical trajectory of IPR helps contextualize contemporary debates on the ownership of genetic resources, traditional knowledge, and the ethical implications of patenting life forms.

6.1 World Trade Organization (WTO) and Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
6.1.1 Introduction
The globalization of trade and the rapid advancement in innovation—particularly in biotechnology—have necessitated the harmonization of intellectual property rights (IPR) across nations. The World Trade Organization (WTO), established in 1995, is the apex multilateral body that regulates international trade among member states. Within its legal framework, the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) plays a foundational role in setting minimum standards for IPR protection and aligning national laws with global trade norms.
In the realm of biotechnology, TRIPS has profound implications on patentability of life forms, technology transfer, public health, biodiversity, and traditional knowledge.
6.1.2 World Trade Organization (WTO): An Overview
• Established: January 1, 1995
• Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland
• Membership: 164 members (as of 2024), including India
• Primary Objectives:
• Facilitate free and fair global trade
• Administer trade agreements
• Resolve trade disputes
• Monitor national trade policies
• Promote cooperation with other international organizations (e.g., WIPO, WHO)

Many non-spore-forming, anaerobic, Gram-negative bacteria cause opportunistic mixed infections, often in association with facultative anaerobes. Synergistic interactions between the organisms in these mixed infections are common. Fusobacterium species and bacteria formerly referred to as Bacteroides species account for more than 50%of the anaerobic organisms isolated from these infections.
Usual Habitat
Nan-spore-forming, Gram-negative anaerobes are often found on muwus membranes, particularly in the digestive tract, of animals and man. They are excreted in the faeces and they can survive for short periods in the environment. Dichelobacter nodosus, a primary pathogen of the epidermal tissues of the hoof region of ruminants, survives for less than 4 days in mud. Diagnostic Procedures
In order to ensure that isolates of anaerobes are aetiologically significant, specimens for isolation procedures should be obtained by direct sampling from discharges or lesions and by supra pubic puncture in urinary infections. Specimens should be processed promptly after collection. Commercial kits and transport media are available for specimens from suspected anaerobic infections. In the core of a tissue specimen over 2-3 cm, an anaerobic microenvironment is usually maintained. Samples of fluid in a syringe remain suitable for anaerobic culture if air is expelled from the syringe and the needle
is plugged.
Anaerobic jars with an atmosphere of hydrogen and 10%CO2 are used for incubating cultures at 37°C for up to 7 days.

5.1 Plant Breeder’s Rights (PBR) and Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights (PPV&FR) Act
5.1.1 Introduction
In the context of biotechnology and agricultural innovation, Plant Breeder’s Rights (PBRs) offer exclusive intellectual property protection to individuals or organizations that breed, develop, or discover new plant varieties. These rights ensure economic incentives for plant breeders while promoting innovation in seed development and agricultural productivity. In India, the unique and inclusive Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act (PPV&FR), 2001, balances breeders’ rights with recognition of farmers’ contributions, making it one of the most progressive legislations in the world.
5.1.2 Concept of Plant Breeder’s Rights (PBR)
Plant Breeder’s Rights refer to the exclusive rights granted to plant breeders to produce, sell, market, distribute, import or export their registered plant varieties. These rights are sui generis, meaning they are a special form of IP distinct from patents, developed to cater specifically to plant varieties.
Key Objectives of PBR
• Encourage investment in plant breeding and biotechnology.
• Ensure access to improved crop varieties.
• Prevent unauthorized commercial exploitation of novel varieties.
• Facilitate biodiversity conservation through formal registration systems.

Bacteroides spp are non-spore forming gram-negative bacilli that are part of the human resident flora. Microbiologically, they are distinguished from other genera by growth in 20% bile. At present, the Bacteroides fragilis group consists of ten species: B. fragilis (the most frequent isolate), B. distasonis, B. thetaiotaomicron, B. vulgatus, B. ovatus, B. eggerrthii, B. merdae, B. stercoris, B. uniformis, and B. caccae. Since 1990, many organisms previously designated as Bacteroides have been reclassified (see chapter on Anaerobes other than Bacteroides). Bacteroides, the predominant genus in the human
intestine, are important in numerous metabolic activities and may provide some level of protection from invasive pathogens. All 10 species are usually isolated from the colon, although infections caused by or associated with them can include virtually any organ.
Characteristics
The gram-negative Bacteroides spp. or closely related genera are capsulated obligatory anaerobic bacilli that are non-spore forming, pale-staining, and some are motile by peritrichous flagella, while other taxa are non-motile. Bacteroides, Parabacteroides, Odoribacter are generally bile resistant, distinguished from genera which are bile sensitive. They are normally commensal, found in the
intestinal tract of humans (mouth, colon, urogenital tract) and other animals. Many cultures of Bacteroides strains display brown to black pigmentation on blood agar media caused by esculin hydrolysis.
Morphology
In general, all strains were stained poorly with safranin, but well with dilute carbolfuchsin. Motility was not observed in any strains. The morphology of Bacteroides fragilis in fresh cultures and in pus is not
especially characteristic. In this form, the bacillus measures 0.5 by 2.0 to 2.5 micra. Older cultures tend to develop larger forms (0.6 to 0.8 by 2.0 to 9.0 micra) but even in this state the organism cannot be distinguished from aerobic Gram-negative bacilli, by its morphology.