eChapters

Abstract

With recent advances in molecular biology and rapid developments in new analytical techniques, engineering of microbes for the bioremediation processes has been extensively studied as recombinant microbes can degrade various toxic pollutants effectively. The prospect of microbial engineering has greater potentialities for agriculture and environmental applications and this may provide us deeper insight in understanding the microbial interactions and biotransformation processes. Though much work has been carried out on bioremediation using genetically engineered microorganisms, its application is restricted to environment due to the concerns of health and environment over ecosystem. Nevertheless, evaluation of risk assessment has also been carried out in order to ascertain the potential benefits of transgenic microbes.

The buffalo belonged to the Bovidae family, Bovinae subfamily and the scientific name is Bubalus bubalis. This is descended from the Bubalus arnee or wild Indian buffalo, and is widely dispersed throughout Southern Asia. The world population of buffaloes is approximately 204 million head: more than 98% are in Asia; 0.8%are in Africa, particularly in Egypt; 0.9% are in South America; and 0.2% are in Europe (FAO, 2024).

The countries with the largest numbers of dairy buffaloes are India, Pakistan, China, Nepal and Egypt. In Pakistan and Nepal there are more dairy buffaloes than dairy cows. Water buffaloes are the main source of milk in South Asia. India is the largest water buffalo milk producer compared to Pakistan, where buffaloes produce more milk than cattle.

 Scientific classification
 Genus: Bubalus 
 Species: bubalis
 Wild water buffalo: Bubalus arnee
 Domestic water buffalo: Bubalus bubalis
 Lowland anoa: Bubalus depressicornis
 Mountain anoa: Bubalus quarlesi
 Tamaraw: Bubalus mindorensis
 Cebu tamaraw: Bubalus cebuensis

Fruits provide a suitable environment for seed maturation and often a mechanism for the dispersal of mature seeds. By anatomical definition, fruit is a mature ovary, and therefore, includes carpel tissues in part or in whole. However, many fleshy fruit species develop mature fruit tissues by including extra-carpellary floral components. The examples include strawberry, pineapple, mulberry and pome fruit (apple, pear, etc.) in which the receptacle, bracts, calyx and floral tube (the fused base of floral organs), respectively constitute majority of mature fruit tissues. Even species with fruit derived from carpel tissue exclusively can display a range of developmental programs, spanning the relatively uniform single expanded carpel or drupe of stone fruit to the differentiated carpel tissues, giving rise to the peel (flavedo) and multi-carpel flesh as observed in citrus and banana. Although genetic selection of agriculturally valuable fruits is being done since centuries but most of the information about how fruits develop, how this development is coordinated with embryonic development and seed formation and the molecular, cellular and physiological events that control fruit growth and differentiation are still lacking. In the following sections, the various aspects controlling fruit setting and development have been discussed.

Gladiolus saundersii

5.1 Introduction

Evanescent field absorption spectroscopy is a powerful well-established laboratory technique for chemical analysis. The technique utilizes the evanescent wave penetration at the boundary between two dielectric media in conditions of attenuated total reflection (ATR). One of the media, a thin slab-shaped non-absorbing crystal, is called a waveguide, while the other medium of lower refractive index is the absorbing sample being studied. At each reflection at the boundary of the crystal and the sample, the penetration of the evanescent wave of the guided ray into the absorbing sample gives rise to a reduction of the power propagating in the crystal. The degree of absorption depends on the amplitude of the evanescent field in the sample medium and the number of reflections within the waveguide. The former increases dramatically for incident angles approaching the crystal-sample critical angle while the latter increases with the decrease in the thickness of the waveguide. The number of reflections can also be increased by increasing the length of the waveguide. Thus, to achieve maximum absorption, an unclad optical fiber is well suited for evanescent wave absorption spectroscopy. This is because, unlike the crystal waveguide, the narrow core diameter of the fiber provides a large number of reflections per unit length. Further, the use of an optical fiber to transmit light to a section of its core in contact with an absorbing sample offers the possibility of remote sensing or in-line analysis. These advantages, together with the benefits of simplicity, reliability, flexibility and relatively low cost have motivated a number of research groups all over the world to investigate evanescent wave spectroscopy at the surface of an unclad optical fiber. This chapter will be devoted to the fiber optic sensors utilizing evanescent field absorption spectroscopy.

Antibodies, also called immunoglobulins, are the proteins produced by the immune system against antigens. These are the protective proteins which interact with antigens and neutralize their effects. Antibodies are produced by B lymphocytes. An immunoglobulin has a Y-shaped structure consisting of four polypeptide chains.

Commercial ice cream represents a highly diversified category influenced by formulation, processing technology, regulatory standards, consumer preferences, cost structures, and market positioning. This chapter explains the meaning and characteristics of commercial ice cream, with particular attention to the Indian regulatory and market context. It examines major commercial product types, their compositions, ingredient functions, and differences from artisanal products. The chapter also discusses contemporary market trends and changing consumer expectations, including premiumization and alternative formulations. Quality challenges such as ice crystal growth, sandiness, shrinkage, weak body, coating defects, and cold-chain failures are considered, providing readers with a practical understanding of commercial ice cream production and positioning.

Abstract

Bioprocessing is much greener than chemical methods, since biocatalysts (enzymes or cells) involved are extremely selective, producing higher product yield with less or no by products, which are basically difficult to separate. Biotechnology can offer both economic and environmental benefits to the chemical industry and thus has great potential to achieve the sustainable production of existing and new products from renewable feedstocks. Fuel and energy production from biomass are major market sector for bioprocessing. They are considered in the manufacturing of biopharmaceuticals, food, food additives, chemicals, and several other products. Generally, a bioprocess involves feedstock pretreatment, fermentation or biocatalysis, and downstream processing for obtaining product and its purification. It is explored for the production of xylitol, fatty alcohol, butanol and biorefinery. Deep understanding of the process is required to create robust control strategy. Based on the requirements, sophisticated instrumentation and complex control laws or simple control law having intricate monitoring system can be selected. Supercritical fluids (SCFs) are advantageous for bioprocessing due to its transport properties, high diffusivity and low viscosity facilitate mass transfer phenomena, variation of pressure and/or temperature are adjusted providing high flexibility in the extraction of metabolites from cells. Microfluidic devices in which small amounts of fluids (10^-9 and 10^-18) are manipulated have emerged for high throughput applications. Automation of the optimization processes is enabled through microtiter plates with simplicity and operate with very small volumes. Therefore, more research is necessary to develop integrated processes that will allow combining one or more techniques to enhance bioprocessing at lower costs.

Biotic stresses include diseases and insect pests which cause serious damage to the crop plants and ultimately yield loss. Biotic stresses can be listed as follows:

• Diseases caused by pathogens which include fungi, bacteria, and viruses
• Insects
• Nematodes
• Parasitic weeds

Another category of stresses are called as abiotic stresses which are caused by environmental factors as:

• Water stresses (water logging, drought)

1. Introduction
Pharmacognosy, formerly known as materia medica, is the study of unrefined medications derived from minerals, plants, and animals. Although C. A. Seydler coined the phrase in 1815, J. A. Schmidt used it in 1811 to refer to the study of medicinal plants and their characteristics. The word refers to the study or knowledge of medicines and is derived from the Latin terms gignoso, which means “to acquire knowledge of,” and pharmakon, which means “a drug.” Plants, animals, or their parts that have just been dried, sliced longitudinally or transversely, or infrequently peeled after collecting are considered crude pharmaceuticals. The majority of the basic drugs used in medicine are derived from plants, with only a minor portion coming from the animal and mineral kingdoms. Drugs made from plants are full plants, however cinchona bark, ginger rhizome, nux vomica seeds, and senna leaves and pods are plant components. Some medications, such as orange and lemon peels and colchicum corm, are used fresh, but the majority are dried after harvesting. Crude pharmaceuticals can also be obtained by straightforward physical processes like drying or water extraction. Aloe is the dried juice of Aloe species’ leaves, opium is the dried latex from poppy capsules, and black catechu is the dried aqueous extract from Acacia catechu’s wood. Plant exudates such as gums, resins, balsams, volatile oils, and fixed oils are also considered crude medicines. Additional drugs that physicians, surgeons, or pharmacists use directly or indirectly include diatomite for filtering gums or turbid liquids; cotton, silk, jute, and nylon for surgical dressings or kaolin; wax, gelatin, and agar for use as pharmaceutical auxiliaries of flavoring or sweetening agents; and drugs used as insecticides or vehicles. Animal medications can be extracts, like liver extracts, glandular products, such thyroid organs, or whole animals, like can-tharides. Similarly, goods that come from animals include fish liver oils, bee wax, musk, certain hormones, enzymes, and antitoxins. Drugs can be classified as either organized or disorganized. Organized medications come directly from plants and are composed of biological tissues. Unorganized pharmaceuticals are generated by physical intermediary procedures such as cutting, drying, or extraction with water, and although being derived from plants, they do not contain cellular tissue. Thus, unstructured medications include gums, resins, aloe, catechu, opium, and other plant exudates. Kaolin, chalk, diatomite, and other Ayurvedic bhasmas are examples of mineralbased medicines.

Large Language Models have fundamentally changed natural language processing and expanded the role of artificial intelligence across software engineering, healthcare, education, business and scientific research. This concluding chapter synthesizes the major technological, operational and societal themes addressed throughout the book and develops a roadmap for next-generation AI models. It considers the continuing evolution of model architectures, training methodologies, multimodal capabilities, real-time inference and specialized applications. At the same time, future AI development must address privacy, fairness, transparency, accountability, security, computational cost and environmental sustainability. The chapter emphasizes that LLM development cannot be viewed solely as a race toward larger models; future systems must also become more efficient, adaptable, interpretable and responsible. Emerging directions include self-improving systems, real-time reasoning, multimodal intelligence, domain-specific models and increasingly autonomous AI agents. Lifecycle governance, continuous evaluation and human oversight will remain essential as models become more deeply integrated into society. The roadmap therefore calls for collaboration among researchers, developers, industry, policymakers and users to create AI systems that combine technological capability with safety, sustainability, human values and social responsibility.

Plant Relationship with Soil in Climate Change

1. Gravimetric Moisture

Significance of Gravimetric Analysis

Gravimetric moisture analysis, being the foundation of soil water assessment, allows for a meticulous examination of the water content in the soil. The process involves obtaining a representative soil sample, subjecting it to controlled drying conditions, and determining the weight loss after moisture removal. This method not only quantifies the total water content but also helps in understanding the soil’s water-holding capacity and drainage characteristics. Gravimetric analysis is indispensable in precision agriculture, aiding farmers in optimizing irrigation schedules and preventing overwatering or underhydration.

The term “plant pest”, mainly applied to insect micropredators of plants, has a specific definition in terms of the International Plant Protection Convention and phytosanitary measures worldwide. A pest is any species, strain or biotype of plant, animal, or pathogenic agent injurious to plants or plant products. Worldwide, agricultural pest impacts are increased by higher degrees of interconnectedness. This is due to the increased risk that any particular pest problem anywhere in the world (as a system) will propagate across the entire system.

Introduction

On 29 January 2000, the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity adopted a supplementary agreement to the Convention known as the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. The Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology. It establishes an advance informed agreement (AIA) procedure for ensuring that countries are provided with the information necessary to make informed decisions before agreeing to the import of such organisms into their territory. The Protocol contains reference to a precautionary approach and reaffirms the precaution language in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. The Protocol also establishes a Biosafety Clearing-House to facilitate the exchange of information on living modified organisms and to assist countries in the implementation of the Protocol.

13.1 The Normal Sperm Morphology

A mature spermatozoa is an elongated cell consisting of a flattened head containing the nucleus, a neck and a tail containing the apparatus necessary for cell motility. The sperm cell consists of the following parts covered by the plasmalemma or plasma membrane: 
    
13.1.1    Head
    
13.1.2    Neck
    
13.1.3    Tail / flagellum – The sperm tail consist of     
    
a.    Mid piece
    
b.     Main piece / Principal piece
    
c.     End piece

Sperm Plasma Membrane

The sperm plasma membrane is three layered membrane. It lies in close contact with the underlying cytoplasm and attached at three places i.e. over anterior outline of the sperm head, around the base of the head, in circle around the distal end of the midpiece (Jensen’s ring). This attachment causes creation of three compartments with probably no communication with each other. The sperm plasma membrane is invisible under normal light or phase contrast microscopy but can be visualized after addition of substances with light refractory index e.g. bovine plasma albumin or synthetic polysaccharides. It is very easily permeable to water but there is low permeability for inorganic cations (Na, K, Ca etc.) and even lower permeability for anions (NO3, Cl). Exposure of sperm cells to hypertonic media will cause the water to go from sperm to the surrounding media leading to shrinkage of sperm cell whereas exposure of sperm cells to hypotonic media will induce influx of water causing swelling of the sperm cell. The more water that goes into the tail the more it changes its shape and becomes rounded to give room for increasing amount of water. As the length of the tail decreases as it becomes round, the tail fibrils have less space and tail bends and coils within the membrane vesicle. Tail fibrils are not damaged initially and will continue to contract till the critical volume of bull sperm is 3.8-3.9 times of its volume in an isotonic solution. The swelling and change in shape of the spermatozoa are momentary processes and can be corrected if hypotonicity of the media is corrected before the sperm cells reach the critical volume for rupture.

Sperm membrane is responsible for maintenance of the intracellular biochemical environment. Damaged plasma membrane is responsible for the leakage of electrolytes and organic substances such as enzymes and may also lead to damage of sperm cells by foreign substances from the surrounding media.

Introduction 
Digital infrastructure has emerged as the foundational pillar for transforming governance systems in the 21st century, particularly in developing countries like India that aspire to harness digital technologies for inclusive growth and efficient public service delivery. Defined broadly, digital infrastructure encompasses the integrated ecosystem of hardware, software, connectivity networks, data centers, cloud platforms, and institutional frameworks that enable the generation, storage, transmission, and utilization of digital information (Verdecchia, Lago, & de Vries, 2022; Clark, Marin, Ardic Alper, & Galicia Rabadan, 2025). In the context of governance, such infrastructure provides the critical backbone for digital public goods, service delivery platforms, and real-time decision-making systems. India’s strategic thrust towards digitalization since the early 2000s, and particularly after the launch of the Digital India programme in 2015, reflects an ambitious attempt to leverage digital infrastructure not merely as a technological upgrade but as an instrument of governance reform, economic empowerment, and social equity (Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, n.d.-a). Digital infrastructure forms the bedrock of contemporary digital governance, unlocking scalable, secure, and inclusive public service delivery in India. It comprises high-speed broadband networks, State Data Centres, identity platforms, cloud systems, and institutional linkages essential for capturing, processing, storing, and transmitting data across government and citizen-facing services (Aapti Institute, 2024). Since the launch of the National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) in 2006, India’s efforts have focused on strategic infrastructure investments like State Wide Area Networks (SWANs), State Data Centres (SDCs), and Common Services Centres (CSCs) to decentralize digital access across states and districts (Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, n.d.-a). Building on the foundation laid by the National e-Governance Plan, the Digital India Mission—initiated in December 2015—elevated infrastructure development to a national policy priority by integrating platforms such as

Accurate mix calculation is essential for achieving the desired composition, quality, cost, and regulatory compliance of ice cream. This chapter introduces methods used to calculate formulations based on fat, milk solids-not-fat, sugar, total solids, and other components. It explains the Pearson’s Square method, serum-point calculations, simple mix calculations, and least-cost formulation approaches. The chapter demonstrates how mathematical formulation can translate ingredient specifications into a practical manufacturing recipe. Proper calculation helps maintain consistency between batches while controlling ingredient costs and product characteristics. The chapter therefore provides a practical foundation for students, technologists, and manufacturers involved in formulation development, production planning, cost optimization, and quality management.

The ultimate aim of production, handling and distribution of vegetables is to satisfy the consumers, and it is well known fact that consumer satisfaction depends on quality of the produce what he gets (Shewfelt et al., 1997). The term quality implies the degree of suitability of produce for a particular use. Quality can be expressed as an absence of defects or degree of excellence of the produce in respect to appearance, i.e., size, shape and colour. Quality is a bundle of attributes that are inherent in the produce and can readily be quantified throughout handling and distribution. It may also be defined as a series of attributes selected based on accuracy and precision of measurement. For grades and standards, the definition of quality is institutionalized so that it may have the same meaning for every one using it. Combination of characteristic features of the produce itself is termed as quality and that the consumer’s perception and response to those characteristic features should be referred to as acceptability.

Quality of produce encompasses sensory properties, such as appearance, texture, odour, aroma, taste and flavour that are readily perceived by the human senses and hidden attributes, such as safety, chemical constituents, nutritive values, mechanical properties, functional property and defects that require sophisticated instruments to measure (Abbott, 1999). Combination of sensory and instrumental measurements of quality attributes provides an estimate of customer acceptability. In a long chain from producer to the actual consumer, each passes judgment and each has his own set of acceptability or quality criteria, often biased by personal expectations and preferences. The component attributes of quality vary with context. The choice of what to measure, how to measure it and what values acceptable to the consumer are determined by the person requiring the measurement, with consideration of the intended use of the produce. Quality can be measured, and it relates to consumer acceptability.