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Aonla, indigenous to Indian subcontinent popularly known as Indian gooseberry (Amla), is a fruit with immense nutritional and medicinal value. In fact, aonla, in its processed form is very popular among the social elites. Its fruit is valued very high amongst the indigenous medicinal fruits and has even been recommended by the ancient Ayurvedic system for sound health. Aonla is the second largest source of Vitamin C (600 mg/100 gm) among all the fruits, after Barbados cherry and this is 10 times the amount of Vitamin C present in orange. Vitamin C plays a major role in the health of the teeth and gums. In addition to this, it increases the resistance against pathogenic attacks. Aonla is also rich in fibers (3.4%) that are important for the smooth flow of ingested food in our alimentary canal. It also contains carbohydrates (14%) and vitamin B1 (30 mg/100g of fruit weight). Minerals like iron, calcium and magnesium, which are crucial for the various metabolic reactions in a human body, are also present in ample quantities in aonla. 

Genus : Phyllanthus
Species : emblica L.
Family : Euphorbiaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 28

The aonla (Emblica officinalis syn. Phyllanthus emblica) is native of tropical south-eastern Asia, and to central and southern India in particular. Aonla although considered as a minor fruit, but is of commercial significance primarily due to early high returns without much care. The small lateral branches resembles pinnate leaves of walnut or sumac and when fall off leaves behind a big scar. Flowers are axillary, apetalous mono or dioecious in small clusters or singly. Plants show great adaptability, are hardy and high bearer. The genus Phyllanthus (Greek-for leaf flower) has some 500 species or even more and two have been identified as important from fruit point of view i.e. P. emblica and P. acidus.

Aonla or Indian gooseberry (Emblica officinalis Gaertn), belongs to family Euphorbiaceae, is indigenous to Indian subcontinents (Morton, 1960). It has become an important commercial fruit crop in India, due to its hardy nature, suitability to various waste lands, high productivity, nutritive and therapeutic values (Singh et al., 2003). In its processed form, is very popular among the social elites (Singh, 2012). As an indigenous fruit, it has extensive adaptability to grow in diverse climatic and soil conditions ranging from plain lands to hills. The climate ranging from hot tropical plains to humid subtropical mid-elevation hills has been found suitable for its cultivation. It is successfully raised in arid, semi-arid, coastal and warm temperate conditions. Similarly it grows well in saline, alkaline and degraded as well as in sandy, red and clay soils (Singh, 2012).

It is not merely a source of nutrients and medicines but its cultivation is also highly remunerative for small and marginal farmers. Traditionally, aonla has been a common crop of forest or household, but during the last decade or two, unprecedented expansion has been witnessed in the sphere of aonla cultivation across the country, utilizing the wasteland. Many small and big orchards have been established. This has resulted in efficient utilization or resources culminating in increase in farmers’ income and nutritional security coupled with enhanced employment and better utilization of wastelands.

Origin and history  : Aonla or Indian gooseberry is also known as Indian amla. Aonla is the tropical South eastern Asia particularly central and southern India. It is commercially grown in Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat. In Uttar Pradesh aonla cultivation is more popular in Pratapgarh, Mirzapur and Barely. It is very rich from nutritional point of view being next to Barbados cherry in terms of vitamin C content (500-750 mg/100g pulp)which is not oxidized due to presence of tannins and even it is least destroyed during storage. Besides, it has an excellent medicinal value. It can be grown successfully in arid climate and in the soils of higher pH and poor fertility wastelands.

Aonla or Indian gooseberry, Emblica officinalis is indigenous to Indian sub-continent. India ranks first in the world in area and production of this crop. Aonla is mainly cultivated in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh etc. It performs well even in the wastelands. Aonla is a plant of great medicinal value and its fruits are a rich source of vitamin C. It has acrid, cooling, diuretic and laxative properties. Dried fruits are useful in hemorrhages, diarrhoea, dysentery, anaemia, jaundice, dyspepsia and cough. Aonla is used in the indigenous medicines (Aurvedic system) viz. trifla and chayvanprash. Fruits are commonly used for preserve (murabbas), pickles, candy, jelly and jam. Besides fruits, leaves, bark and even seeds are being used for various purposes. Very few insect pests are reported on aonla and the details of which are provided here under:

Mealy bug, Planococcus citri Risso (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

It is a highly polyphagous pest feeding on wide range of cultivated/ uncultivated plants. Citrus, mango, guava are few major hosts besides aonla. The bug is a small soft bodied insect the female of which is wingless

Medicinal plants especially underutilized fruit are the nature’s gift to arid zone. Many of fruits are popular in this area but aonla posses an important place among all. Aonla or Indian gooseberry (Emblica officinalis Gaertn) is native to tropical south-eastern Asia mainly peninsular of central and southern India. The tree is known as Amla, Amlaki, Amli, Ambala, Amalakamu and Nelli in different parts of India. It is a very hardy tree and can be grown under diverse soil and agro-climatic conditions without much care. Aonla fruits has been reported to have potential of antioxidant, free radical scavenging capacity, anti-inflammatory, anti-mutagenic, immune modulation properties, which is used to cure various cancer, diabetes, liver and heart related diseases

Aonla has been regarded as a sacred tree in India. It has religious value and it is medicinally very important since ancient time. It has hallowed position in Indian medicine system called as Ayurveda as a protective remedy for several mankind problems. The tree was worshipped as Mother Earth and is believed to nurture humankind because the fruit are very nourishing. Kartik Mahatma and Vrat Kaumudi order the worship of this tree. The leaves are offered to the Lord of Shri Satyanarayana Vrata, Samba on Shri Shanipradosha Vrata and Shiva and Gowri on Nitya Somvara Vrata. The fruit and flowers are also used in worship. Fruits of aonla are processed in various forms like Juice, Murabba, Chayvanprash, candy, powder and flakes which has significant role in mitigating several malnourished disorders. Aonla cultivation has gained special attention of researcher community due to its significant role in medicinal industry as well as processing potential.

Choosing an appropriate location for an apiary is a crucial aspect of natural beekeeping. The productivity, health, and survival of bee colonies are strongly affected by environmental elements such as vegetation diversity, local climate conditions, availability of water, and absence of regular disturbances. In natural farming systems, selecting a site takes on greater importance, as it aims to harmonize with nature, reduce interference, and integrate smoothly with the broader farm ecosystem

An ideal apiary should be situated in a calm, shaded location, away from frequent human activity, loud noises, and pesticide contamination. Bees are extremely sensitive to chemical residues; therefore, the surrounding area should follow organic or chemical-free farming practices. The site must offer year-round access to nectar and pollen sources—like flowering plants, trees, herbs, and native vegetation—to maintain steady nutrition for the bees

Having a clean water source within 500 meters is essential, as bees use water for cooling, honey processing, and nurturing the brood. If there’s no natural water body nearby, shallow containers filled with water and pebbles or floating sticks should be provided. The area should also be shielded from high winds, harsh sunlight, and heavy rains through natural barriers such as hedgerows, bamboo groves, or dense shrubs.

Beekeeping symbolizes the biological interdependence between insects, pollination and production of seed. Honey bees have been tirelessly rendering this yeoman service to benefit human-kind since time immemorial. Beekeeping is defined as “the science and art of rearing honey bees for man’s economic benefits”. Since, honey producing bees are restricted to the genus Apis beekeeping is also called ‘Apiculture’. A suitable place selected for housing honey bee hives, equipments and related accessories is referred to as an “apiary”. The invention of movable hive with separable frames in 1851 by L.L. Langstroth gave beekeeping the impetus to flourish. Further fine-tuning of scientific rearing techniques in these movable hives helped in spreading beekeeping to the newer areas.

Honey Producing Species of Bee

About 20,000 bee species are found worldwide. However, only four species viz. the European honey bee (Apis mellifera Linnaeus), the oriental bee (A. cerana Fabricius), the dwarf bee (A. florae Fabricius), and the giant or rock bee (A. dorsata Fabricius) are commonly recognized as honey producing. Amongst these two, only A. cerana and A. mellifera are hived because these build multiple-combs in dark cavities. The other two build single comb nests in the open (Akratnakul 1987a, Ruttner 1987).

Introduction

Honey bees are the most fascinating creature found in the nature and are very closely associated with our cultural heritage. They have been evolved with structural perfection and behavioral instinct to render their service as the best pollinator and enable to realize the potential yields of several cross pollinated crops under various agro-ecological situations. They are indispensable for human survival. The words of the great scientist Albert Einstein quoted below is very pertinent in this context “If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe, then man would only have four years of life left. No more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man”.(Thakur, 2011). Thus, starting from honey hunting since time immemorial to traditional bee keeping and its present transformation to scientific bee keeping has been a continuous endeavor of human for harnessing both direct and indirect benefits from bee keeping activities. Bee keeping has been a very popular agro based enterprise which does not compete with any resource of farming system rather acts as an integral component of Integrated farming system. Now-a-days it has not only attracted the attention of a diverse group of people, administrators and institutions for various purposes but also it has been the point of attraction of the rural poor and youth for their livelihood improvement.

Nearly 70 percent of the cultivated crops all over the world are cross-fertilized and depend on insects like honeybees for pollination. At present, several countries are making desperate efforts to achieve self–sufficiency in food production by physical expansion of the area under cultivation, production of better quality seeds and animals, bringing more waste lands under cultivation, use of fertilizers,pesticides and irrigation. However, in the past decade or so, food production has come to a point of stagnation for some cultivated crops. Emphasis in the future therefore, should be on full use of under used resources. In order to maximize horticultural production, pollinators can be used as an important resource or input as improved variety of seed, timely irrigation, doses of fertilizers and plant protection.

1. ‘Apis’ means …. . .

 a) Waxf b)   Bee      

 c)  Honey d) All of these

 2. Apiculture is also known as …. . .

 a) Bee-keeping b) Wax preparation                

 c) Both a & b d) None of these

 3. Importance of bee-keeping …. . .

 a) It provides honey      

 b) It provides bee wax             

 c) Honey bees are excellent pollinating agents, thus increasing agricultural

 d) All of these

 4. Species of honey bee is …. . .

 a) Apis dorsata b) Apis indica             

 c) Apis florae d) All of these

Apomixis was defined by Winkler as replacement of the normal sexual reproduction by asexual reproduction, without fertilization. This definition notably does not mention meiosis. Thus “normal asexual reproduction” of plants, such as propagation from cuttings or leaves, has never been considered apomixis, but replacement of the seed by a plantlet, or replacement of the flower by bulbils are types of apomixis. Apomixis deviates from sexual reproduction in several aspects: modification or complete omission of meiosis, formation of unreduced megaspores, parthenogenetic development of embryo, and autonomous, or pseudogamous, endosperm development (Ramulu et al., 1998). Apomixis produces embryos or seed progeny that are exact genetic replicas of the mother plant. The main advantage of apomixis over sexual reproduction is the possibility to select individual plants with superior characteristics and to propagate them clonally through seeds. Apomictically produced offsprings are genetically identical to the parent plant. In flowering plants, the term “apomixis” is commonly used in a restricted sense to mean agamospermy, i.e. asexual reproduction through seeds.

Apomixis is an asexual method of reproduction through the seed. Apomictic reproduction is widespread and found in over 300 species of plants in 30 families. Interest in apomixis as a reproductive mechanism has increased as its potential and role are being recognized in genome preservation, polyploid build up, propagation of derivatives of wide crosses, permanent fixation of hybrid vigour, evolution, speciation and plant breeding .

Winkler (1906) defined apomixis as “the substitution for sexual reproduction of another asexual reproductive process that does not involve nuclear or cellular fusion.” One of the chief barriers to an understanding of the apomictic phenomenon has been the highly complex terminology as well as the differences of opinion among specialists as to the correct usage of these terms, probably because the phenomenon by itself is complex and in many ways quite different from that of amphimixis. Convincing evidence for the presence of apomixis can be obtained by tracing the steps that are involved in embryonic development. It should be amply clear that as the prerequisite for apomixis, fertilization does not take place at all in any form. Thus there is no normal development of embryo from the egg cell. However, the embryo may develop from an unfertilized egg cell other than the egg cell within the embryo sac.

Apomixis is widely distributed among higher plants. More than 300 species belonging to 35 families are apomictic. It is most common in Gramineae, Compositae, Rosaceae and Rutaceae. Among the major cereals like maize, wheat and pearl millet have apomictic relatives.

I. FILL UPS

1. Development of seed without fertilization is called _____.
2. _____ is the substitution for any sexual nuclear fusion.
3. Apomitic seed will have genetic material only from the _____ plant.
4. In _____ apomixis type, the megaspore cell undergoes the usual meiotic division and forms a haploid embryo sac.
5. The process of seed formation without sexual fusion is known as _____.
6. _____ is defined as the development of embryo from some other cell of embryo sac other than egg.
7. Haploid embryo arises from the egg without fertilization is called_____.

1. APOMIXIS

Development of seed without fertilization. When the seed formation occurs without sexual fusion, the process is known as apomixis. This occurs by several mechanism, however all apomitic seed have genetic material only from the female plant Apomixis may or may not require pollination and pollen tube germination to initiate seed formation, however sexual union.

Introduction

Apomixis is a phenomenon in which there is development of seed without fertilization or sexual fusion. Embryo develops without fertilization in apomixis. Hence, apomixis is an asexual means of reproduction therefore the genotype of plant will be same as of mother plant. Apomixis was first time discovered by Leuwenhock in 1719 in citrus whereas the term apomixis was first time used by Winker in 1908.The main benefit of apomixis over sexual reproduction is the selection of individual plant with superior characters and propagation of clonally through seeds. Higher plants commonly exhibit apomixis. There are more than 300 species belonging to 35 families that exhibit apomixis. Most commonly, it occurs in Gramineae, Compositae, Rosaceae, and Rutaceae.

5.1 APOMIXIS

Apomixis is derived from two Greek words “Apo” (away from) and “mixis” (the act of mixing or mingling). It refers to the occurrence of an asexual reproductive process in the place of normal sexual processes involving reduction division and fertilization. During sexual reproduction, developmental steps occurring inside the ovule produce the female gametophyte (embryo sac) and following a double fertilization event give rise to embryo and endosperm structures. Apomixis can be best described as the reference to the asexual process. In some species, embryo sac is produced not as a result of meiosis and fertilization but by certain asexual processes. The occurrence of such asexual reproductive process in the place of normal seed reproductive processes of reduction division and fertilization is known as Apomixis. Such seedling plants produced in this manner is known as apomicts. ’’Apomixis’’ is used synonymously with ’’agamospermy’’ (Stebbins 1950), referring to the asexual production of seed.

Apomixis (asexual seed formation) is a phenomenon in which a plant bypasses the most fundamental aspects of sexual reproduction—meiosis and fertilization—to form a viable seed. Plants can form seeds without fertilization, and the seed genotype is consistent with the female parent. The development of apomictic technology would be revolutionary for agriculture and for food production as it would reduce costs and breeding times and also avoid many complications typical of sexual reproduction (e.g., incompatibility barriers) and of vegetative propagation (e.g., viral transfer). The application of apomictic reproductive technology has the potential to revolutionize crop breeding. Apomixis is widely distributed among higher plants. More than 300 species belonging to 35 families are apomictic. It is most common in Gramineae, Compositae, Rosaceae and Rutaceae. Among the major cereals maize, wheat and pearl millet have apomictic relatives. Apomixis is reproduction where only one parent passes genes to the offspring (King, 2006). Apomictically produced offspring are genetically identical to the parent (clones).The method is mostly seen in plants, especially flowering plants. Apomixis was defined by Hans Winkler (2008) as the replacement of the normal sexual reproduction by asexual reproduction, without fertilization. Propagation from cuttings or leaves, is not apomixis. Natural replacement of the seed by an asexual method is apomixis.

A family of about 400 genera and 4,555 species of mostly tropical and subtropical distribution, but a few species distributed also in temperature regions. About 30 genera and over 60 species of Apocynaceae have been reported from India. Some of the larger genera along with their approximately reported species in bracket are Rauvolfia (100), Tabernaemontana (100), Parsonsia (100), Aspidosperma (80), Prestonia (65), Strophanthus (60), Apocynum (7), Plumeria (6) and Catharanthus (5). Some plants are of medicinal value and some are highly ornamental.
Periwinkle (syn. Vinca) is grown as an ornamental bedding plant in gardens and parks and is known for its colourful flowers and ever-blooming nature. In India, it is commonly known as sada bahar, sada phuli, and barmasi. It is one of the top ten best selling plant in USA. Its importance has increased owing to medicinal properties and as a model species for study of plant’s secondary metabolism. The plant contains more than 70 different alkaloids in leaves and roots which contribute to anti-cancerous (vincristine and vinblastine) and antihypertensive (ajamalicine) properties, respectively.

The researcher desires to make a study on the socio-cultural aspects of cyber spatial interactions. As you are aware, cyber space or Internet has emerged as a powerful medium of communication. The survey is meant purely for academic purpose and therefore, shall not be passed on to any one and the data obtained from the respondents shall be kept confidential for all practical purposes. The researcher sincerely requests your honest responses. The questions are of people in general, and that there is no right or wrong answers.