eChapters

INTRODUCTION

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is afflicted by many kinds of viruses and their various strains belonging to different taxonomic groups (Table 1) throughout the world resultingin declinein yieldand tuber quality. Exact estimation of yield and economic losses caused by potato viruses depends on a number of factors mainly strain of the virus, variety, seasonand growingconditions etc. Generally crop losses ranges between 5 to15 per cent if all plants are secondarily infected with PVX and PVS; 15-30 per cent for 100 per cent secondary infection of PVYnand 40-70 per cent due to PLRV. Besides, in Europe and North America Potato spindle tuber viroid (PSTVd) is wellknown to reduce yieldssignificantly (16-64 per cent) dependingon the viroid strain/potato varietyand warmweather (Singh, 1988). Thesevere strains of Potato virus Y (PVY)and Potato leafroll virus (PLRV) have the potential to reduce yield up to 80 per cent, while mild viruses like Potato virus X (PVX), Potato virus S (PVS)and Potato virus M (PVM) can cause up to 30 per cent yield loss in infected plants. Atospovirus Groundnut bud necrosis virus (GBNV) causing severe stem/leaf necrosis disease in plains/plateaux of central/western India heavily infects the early crop of potato. Similarly, a whitefly transmitted begomovirus Tomato leaf curl New Delhi virus-potato (ToLCNDV) known to cause apical leafcurl disease in India, has become a serious problem in North Indian plains.

The viruses can be mechanically transmitted with plant sap, by contact and with seeds. Infectedtubers, whitefly and aphid vectors are importantfactors for the transmission of the virusesin nature. Potatoviruses are transmitted by aphids in two ways. The viruses are either non-persistent (stylet-borne) or persistent and circulative (they are ingested and persist in the aphid throughout its life cycle). The most common persistent and circulative virus affecting potatoes in India is PLRV. Common non-persistent or stylet-borne viruses are PVY, PVA, PVS and PVM. Control of circulative viruses by insecticides is highly effective, which is not the ease with stylet borneviruses. Sustainable potato production is possible only if the virus incidenceis kept under check especially in sub tropics where the weather is highlyconducive both for vectors and the common viruses. In thischapterthe major viruses and viroidof potato including symptomatology, diagnostics and their management have been discussed.

ABSTRACT

Bihar is a state whose economy is solely dependent on agriculture. Though it has deep fertile land of alluvial origin, still agriculture of this state is facing problems due to frequent flooding. Population pressure on forest had led to creation of large extent of degraded lands. Agroforestry seems to be one of the viable option to avert these adverse conditions. Traditionally people used to integrate trees in farm lands in different forms. However, green revolution reduced these practices. The present paper provides a detailed account of prevalent agroforestry practices in Bihar. Results of different agroforestry systems which had been researched under AICRP on Agroforestry in Bihar since 1987 are also given in this paper.

INTRODUCTION

Bihar, the twelth largest state of India is bound on the north by Nepal, south by Jharkhand, east by West Bengal and on the west by Uttar Pradesh. The state lies between 24° 20’10″ to 27° 31’15″ N latitude and between 83° 19’50" to 88° 17’40"E longitude at an elevation of 53.12 m above the mean sea level and comprises an area of 93595.68 sq.km. The topography of Bihar is practically plain. The whole of the Bihar plain is traversed by a number of fairly large rivers, viz., Ganga, Ghagra, Kosi, Bagmati, Burhi Gandak, Kamla balan etc. which cause intermittent floods and engulf several districts of Bihar each year.

It is crucial to understand that our entire health and wellbeing depends centrally on our mental health. A broad spectrum of mental health issues that impact our mood, thoughts and behaviours may lead to stress, sadness, anxiety inappropriate eating disorders, addictive behaviours and many more. People occasionally face mental health issues, but when persistent symptoms impair functioning and cause regular stress, a mental health concern turns into a mental disease. It also affects how we respond to people, deal with stress and make decisions.
From infancy to adolescence mental health is very crucial for healthy development as it lays the foundation for development of positive social, emotional, cognitive and communication skills and behaviours in young people and that boost the mental health and wellbeing in later life.
Why Is Mental Wellbeing Important?
According to estimates from the World Health Organization, 20% of young people suffer from mental problems and the incidence are growing faster (World Health Organization). Greater numbers signify a greater effect and are more serious. Globally, mental, behavioral and neurological disorders are predicted to account for nearly 15% of disability-adjusted life years by 2030; number of years that an individual was “lost” to living with the aftereffects of a certain disease or lived with a handicap. However, the prevalence pattern varies among high, middle and low-income countries (Prince et al., 2007).

Introduction

The recent revolution in genomics and bioinformatics has caught the world by storm. The issues surrounding the human genome, including the analysis of genetic variation, access to genetic information and the privacy of the individual have fuelled public debate and extended way beyond the scientific and technical literature. During the past few years, bioinformatics, defined as the computational handling and processing of genetic information, has become one of the most highly visible fields of modern science. A flood of data means that many of the challenges in biology are now challenges in computing. Bioinformatics, the application of computational techniques to analyse the information associated with bio-molecules on a large-scale, has now firmly established itself as a discipline in molecular biology, and encompasses a wide range of subject areas from structural biology, genomics to gene expression studies. In this chapter we provide an introduction and overview of the current state of the field.

Introduction

The various kinds of plants present on earth have been used over the millennia for human welfare in the promotion of health and as drugs and fragrance materials. About 80% of the world’s inhabitants rely mainly on herbal medicines for their primary health care, while medicinal plants continue to play an important role in the health care systems of the remaining 20%. The use of herbal medicine and medicinal plants in most developing countries, as a normative basis for the maintenance of good health, has been widely observed (UNESCO, 1996). According to WHO (1998), herbal medicines are finished, labelled medicinal products that contain as active ingredients, above ground or underground parts of plants or other plant materials, or combinations thereof, whether in the crude state or as plant preparations. The plant materials referred to above include juices, gums, resins, fatty oils, essential oils and any other substances of this nature. Herbal medicines may contain excipients in addition to the active ingredients (WHO, 1991). Remarkably, even today there is no real definition for this special group of plants that has been accompanying mankind throughout history. Most frequently, medicinal plants are defined as feral and/or cultivated plants that, based on tradition and literature records, can be directly or indirectly used for medical purposes. The basis of medicinal use is that these plants contain so called active ingredients (active principles or biologically active principles) that affect physiological (metabolic) processes of living organisms, including human beings.

The conception about aromatic plants is even less definite. The term aromatic indicates plants having an aroma; being fragrant or sweet-smelling, while the word aroma is supposed to imply also the taste of the material (aromatic herbs). Since, large number of plants possess both medicinal and aroma properties which leads to complexity and overlapping uses of active ingredients, making impossible to establish rigid categories or a practical classification for medicinal and aromatic plants. For example; Anise, dill, coriander, thyme, etc. are equally known as medicinal, spice and essential oil crops. Thus, frequently these plants are simply referred to as medicinal plants, disregarding their specific features. More recently, the term “Medicinal and Aromatic Plants” (MAPs) has been used in a slightly broader sense, distinguishing the fragrant (aromatic, ethereal) ingredients containing group of medicinal plants.

Climbers refer a group of plants which do not have rigid stem but have special structure to climb over the support or structure of any kind. Ornamental climbers constitute an important group and have unique place in all types of gardens. Careful selection of different species and planting at suitable points of the garden creates scenic beauty and a point of attraction when in bloom. Ideal places of planting climbers are - near gate, porch and boundary wall or on trellis and training them on such structures. Climbers also serve functional purposes like screening, covering wall etc. One should have some knowledge about the growth and flowering before selecting them for planting in the gardens.

Classification

Climbers have various types of growth habit, foliage and flowers. For easy selection, they have been categorised under three broad groups on the basis of their morphological and floral characters.

Foliage Type - These are fast growing and have attractive foliage. Foliage type climbers are suitable for planting in locations where availability of light intensity is comparatively low. The important ones in this group are - Asparagus plumosus,

Introduction

Medicinal and aromatic plants constitute a major segment of the flora, which provides raw materials for use in the pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and drug industries. The indigenous systems of medicines, developed in India for centuries, make use of many medicinal herbs. These systems include Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, and many other indigenous practices. More than 9,000 native plants have established and recorded curative properties and about 1500 species are known for their aroma and flavour. In one of the studies by the World Health Organisation, it is estimated that 80 per cent of the population of developing countries relies on traditional plant based medicines for their health requirements (WHO 1991). Even in many of the modern medicines, the basic composition is derived from medicinal plants and these have become acceptable medicines for many reasons that include easy availability, least side effects, low prices, environmental friendliness and lasting curative property. India and China are the two major producing countries, having 40 per cent of the global biodiversity and availability of rare species. These are well known as the home of medicinal and aromatic crops that constitute a segment of the flora, and provide raw materials to the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, fragrance, flavour etc. industries.

The adoption of modern agricultural technologies has culminated into serious problems of pesticide resistance in major pests, resurgence in minor pests, elimination of populations of natural parasites, predators and pollinators, environmental pollution, pesticide residues in food chain and health hazards. World Health Organization (WHO) estimates one million pesticides poisoning cases and 20,000 deaths every year globally. This is due to high pesticide residues in food chain including cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, milk and milk products (including mother’s milk), fishes, poultry, meat products and water. Twenty five per cent of Indian food products contain pesticide residues above tolerance level compared to only 1.2% globally.

Sustainable agriculture or organic farming wherein biological inputs are maximum and chemical inputs are minimal, is drawing the attention of farmers across the world including India. For replacing chemical fertilizers, which supply plant nutrients by organic manure, the basic requirement is the availability of raw material i.e. the organic matter or biomass that can be decomposed to organic manure. The question that is often asked is what are the different sources of available biomass and how much of it is available? Different sources of biomass can be categorized as

Abstract

With the evolution of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Agriculture as the major employer of Ugandans population with over 82% of the population, agricultural information is a key component in improving small-

5.1 Introduction

A system is a group of interacting components, operating together for a common purpose, capable of reacting as a whole to external stimuli; it is unaffected directly by its own outputs and has a specified boundary based on the inclusion of all significant feedbacks. For example, the human body is a system — it has a boundary (e.g., the skin) enclosing a number of components (heart, lungs) that interact (the heart pumps blood to the lungs) for a common purpose (to maintain and operate the living body) (Rana and Rana 2011).The main aim of orchard management in tropical and sub-tropical fruits, is to increase land use efficiency by use of inter-crops, multiple crops, multi-storeyed crops systems etc. in obtaining maximum income from the available land. Apart from these, cover crops, sod culture, herbicides, minimum tillage etc. are also common.

5.1.1 Cropping Systems

It is an important component of a farming system that represents a cropping pattern used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises and available technology, which determine their makeup.

Introduction
World food security has become largely dependent only on a handful of crops like; wheat, rice, and corn which are the major cereals that support more than 50% of the global calorie demand. While these grains are an essential part of various diets, however they are devoid of essential micronutrients. As a result, it is estimated that micronutrient deficiency affects an estimated 2 billion people worldwide raising health concerns over our high dependence on cereal crops. As agriculture sector is considered as backbone of nation and therefore utilizing a handful of crops have placed the global food security at risk. In this context, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has identified many plants as under-utilized, which can significantly contribute for improving nutrition and health, enhance food basket and livelihoods, future food security and sustainable development (FAOSTAT, 2023). These underutilized crops offer an immense potential in the functional food sector to combat hidden hunger crisis and offer the options of income generation.
Cereals such as rice, maize and wheat are monocots and belong to family Poaceae, however buckwheat, chia, quinoa and amaranthus although resembles with cereals are dicots and are categorized as Pseudocereals. These crops have been placed under the category of important crops by UNESCO due to dwindling cultivation and exploitation in the wild besides, these pseudocereals has gained a worldwide importance in the nutraceutical industry due to the rich nutritional profile compared to cereals and are considered as crops of the 21st century (Pirzadah et al., 2020). These are enriched with various active principals such as; polyphenols, flavonoids, amino acids, dietary fibre, lignans, vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, unsaturated fatty acids and other essential components like fagopyritols. The protein quality and quantity in pseudocereals is far better compared to cereals and this property qualifies their entry into the functional food industry (Rodriguez et al., 2020). Pseudocereals are rich in amino acids such as; arginine, tryptophan, lysine and histidine that proved essential for infant and child health thus, projected pseudocereals as an appropriate food supplement for child nutrition. The food production agro-systems must be adapted to climate change to ensure food security and stability. However, pseudocereals are climate resilient crops and can be grown even on marginal lands that are not fit for cereals thus, are considered as future crops to tackle mal-nutrition and future food crises. To explore these neglected or lost crops, there is an increasing interest in research and development that needs heightened direction and focus (Mabhaudhi et al., 2019). In this context, there is a need to adopt recent biotechnological interventions for the crop improvement and domestication of pseudocereal crops. This chapter focuses on nutritional profile of emerging pseudocereals viz., Buckwheat, Chia, Quinoa and Grain amaranth, phylogeny, genetic resources, breeding behavior and advanced breeding methods and their integration into the global food system

Sagittaria sagittifolia L. (Alismataceae):Eng.- Old World Arrow Head; Hindi- Chotakut; Kash.- Kyou [W]. Perennial herb inhabiting shallow water ponds, swampy rice fields. Leaves arrow shaped. Flowers have small sepals and three white petals, numerous purple stamens.Tubers edible (Figs. S 1, 2).

Soil survey is essentially a systematic examination of morphological, a set of other variable soil characteristics, description, classification and mapping of soil in an area alongwith a report making an interpretation to predict their potentials for various uses particularly for crop production.

Activities of Soil Survey Soil survey is composed of the following activities –

1. Anticipation of soil variability - The initial activity of soil survey is obtained by classifying the surveyed data according to different land forms and existing land uses either through field traversing, or aerial photo or by satellite images of the concerned area.

2. Characterisation and classification – This is done on the basis of soil profile description supported with soil analytical data.

3. Soil mapping - This is performed by showing the distribution of types of soil or soil mapping units based on already classified soils with their landforms, and land uses or their combinations.

4. Interpretation - It is the process of making prediction about the potentials of soils for various uses like choice of farm practices – agriculture, horticulture, forestry, pastures etc. and their management practices.

Introduction

Aquaculture is given major thrust in many countries including India not only as a source of good quality food of animal origin but also because of economic gains it brings to aqua-farmers, creation of employment and export trade. It has emerged as one of the fastest growing food producing sector sowing to intensification and diversification of culture systems. However, the success of the intensive aquaculture system depends on several factors including species cultured, type of feed, water quality, management practices and strategies adopted to prevent/ control disease problems. Further, the intensive aquaculture operation results in accumulation of wastes leading to water quality deterioration, oxygen depletion, build-up of toxic metabolites such as hydrogen sulphide, methane, ammonia and nitrites that cause stress to culture animals leading to susceptibility to diseases. Among the several challenges that seriously affect the growth and sustainability of aquaculture, the incidence of microbial diseases are considered as major threat. Thus, keeping cultured aquatic animals in good health becomes major requirement for the success of aquaculture.

Though application of chemicals and drugs are often considered necessary to maintain water quality and animal health, use of these, in the long run are known to cause harmful effects both to the animal and the environment. Further, accumulation of drugs and chemicals in tissues, development of resistance to drugs by pathogens, pathogen build up, destruction of useful microorganisms, deterioration of pond environment and toxicity issues have limited their use in aquaculture system. Under these circumstances several alternative strategies have been proposed as viable option for the success of aquaculture in the form of prophylactic measuressuch as use of probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, immunostimulants and bacterial vaccines. The term prophylaxis refers to all preventive steps taken including better aquaculture management practices that are adopted during a hatchery and farming operation to improve growth, minimize the load of pathogens and prevent occurrence of diseases.

Abstract

Asteraceae is one of the largest family of flowering plants and have been used by mankind for a variety of purposes including food, medicine, cooking oils, sweeteners and tea infusions. In India, Asteraceae is 4^th largest family of angiosperms and ranked third among dominant families of angiosperms in Arunachal Pradesh. The indigenous communities of Arunachal Pradesh possess a rich knowledge on utilization of the plant resources around them for food, fodder, medicine and other purposes. Due to the remoteness and inaccessibility, the indigenous communities are mostly depended on their traditional medicines using plant resources around them for treating minor and major ailments. The effectiveness of these plants in traditional medicine has also been confirmed after isolation and characterization of the bioactive compounds responsible for their pharmacological activities. The present study is a review on ethnomedicinal plants belonging to Asteraceae family that are being used by different tribes of the state. The tribal communities have been using 36 medicinal plant species from this family as recorded from published literature and field study. Maximum number of species have been found to exhibit antimicrobial, antioxidant, antihelminthic, analgesic and anti-malarial properties. Among the recorded species, Ageratum conyzoides, Spilanthes acmella, Artemisia nilagirica, A. maritima, Blumea balsamifera, B. lacera, Eclipta prostrata, Vernonia cinerea and Chrysanthemum indicum were already being used in Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, Homeopathy, Folk and Sowa-Rigpa systems of Indian Medicine. Therefore, the study highlighted the pharmacological potential of ethnomedicinal plantsfrom Asteraceae family which would provide opportunities for future drugdiscovery.

Abstract

The word “mycorrhiza” literally means “fungus root” to describe the mutualistic association between roots of higher plants and certain fungi. Arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) are the most common and widely occurring of all the mycorrhizal associations and have great economic significance. They belong to the phylum Glomeromycota. Mycorrhizal associations are potential factors in determining the diversity in ecosystems. They can probably modify the structure and functioning of a plant community in a complex and unpredictable way. Currently there is considerable resistance against the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, because of their hazardous influence on the environment, and on soil, plant, animal, and human health. Hence, use of biofertilizers and biocontrol agents are recommended in practical agriculture/horticulture/forestry.

Hedge

Hedge is an important garden feature both for beautification and functional purposes. When a selected plant species is planted together at close distance, in single or multiple rows, later pruned to retain a definite shape and height is known as hedge. These are actually live fence used for demarcating road, paths and sometimes for providing physical barrier, screening and several other purposes.

Selection of Plants

Before selection of plants for developing hedge, the purpose of planting hedge is to be considered first. If the purpose is protective fence, the height and width are to be decided. Accordingly, selection of plant species is to be made. For developing low height and ornamental hedge along the passage and inner roads, selection of plants will be different. In this case, plants having colourful leaves is preferred. Final selection of plant species, however, should be done considering location, availability of sunlight and the type of garden. Plants selected for developing hedge should response well to pruning and, at the same time, acquire a definite shape on repeated pruning. Both foliage type and flowering plants are used for developing hedge.

Introduction

Artificial intelligence (AI) became one of the 21st century’s most technologically disruptive innovations very quickly. The effort to be at the leading edge of AI discovery and development is becoming more intense as the field develops. The rapid advancement of artificial intelligence (AI) technology has sparked significant interest and debate across various sectors, including higher education. From personalized learning experiences to data-driven insights, AI offers a multitude of opportunities for optimizing educational processes and enriching student outcomes. In this reframed exploration, we delve into the transformative potential of AI within higher education and its multifaceted utilization across various domains. AI accelerates scientific research and knowledge discovery by analyzing vast datasets, identifying patterns, and generating insights that fuel innovation. Natural language processing (NLP) algorithms facilitate literature reviews, automate data analysis, and assist in hypothesis generation, empowering researchers to make breakthroughs across disciplines. AI-driven tools empower educators with innovative methods for teaching and assessing student progress. Automated grading systems, virtual tutors, and intelligent tutoring systems streamline administrative tasks, provide real-time feedback, and enable instructors to focus more on personalized instruction. AI streamlines administrative processes within higher education institutions, from admissions to alumni engagement. Chatbots handle inquiries, virtual assistants aid in course scheduling, and predictive analytics optimize resource allocation, enhancing operational efficiency and cost-effectiveness.