eChapters

Abstract

This study was conducted at Directorate of Cashew Research (DCR) Puttur, D.K., Karnataka during 2007-12. In this study, a methodology was standardized to find the area under cashew, barren areas and other areas for expanding cashew cultivation with remote sensing. It was found that the images pertaining to the month of November was best for classifying cashew since the colour of cashew leaves changes during that period. Also, the LISS III images were found to be good for identifying cashew. It was not possible to differentiate between cashew seedling area and cashew graft area using LISS III or LISS IV images. A spatial database of soil moisture was prepared for the irrigation scheduling in cashew and a spatial database of major nutrients was prepared for the site specific nutrient management in cashew gardens. A spatial database of land slope and stream orders was prepared using GIS and suitable soil and water conservation interventions were suggested for the selected area.

Keywords: Cashew, GIS, remote sensing

Introduction

Natural Disasters are inevitable, and Indian subcontinent is prone to all type of Natural Disaster either it is flood, drought, cyclone, earthquakes, tsunami or forest fires etc. Disasters can be classified in several ways. A possible sub-division of disaster is: (i) Natural Disasters; (ii) Human made disasters; (iii) Human induced disasters. Another sub-division is related to the main controlling factors leading to a disaster. These may be meteorological, geomorphological/geological, ecological, technological, global environmental and extra terrestrial. Another useful distinction that can be made between disasters is regarding their duration of impact and the time of forewarning. Some disaster strikes within a short period with devastating outcomes; others have a slow onset period with equally or more serious repercussions. According to the available statistics 60% of the total area of Indian subcontinent is venerable to seismic activity of varying intensities, 16% of the country’s total area is drought prone. In India 68% of total sown area of the country is drought prone. Coastal areas of India is exposed to tropical cyclones, tsunami in recent years and among all the disaster occur in the country, River floods are the most frequent and often the most devastating.

ABSTRACT

Dairy Development plays a vital role in bringing out significant changes in socio-economic structure of rural economy. The main objectives of Dairy Developments in India is to increase production and availability of milk through integrated policy of cattle cum Dairy Development, eliminating the middlemen, through formation of co-operatives and self supporting dairy enterprise. The advent of Geographical Information System (GIS) has added new vistas in the field of Dairy Farm and Management. It also helps in integrating the whole Dairy Farm in a more precise way to get correct information about the various factors related with the whole dairy farm.

Introduction

The farm of Sarasa Green Projects around Chapabandi, Bansgora and Hetedoba Mouzas near Durgapur in Burdwan District of West-Bengal. Dairy Development plays a vital roll in brining about significant changes in socio-economic structure of rural economy. The main objectives of Dairy development in West-Bengal is to increase production and availability of milk through integrated policy of cattle cum Dairy Development eliminating the middlemen through formation of co-operatives and self supporting dairy enterprise. (Fig.1)

ABSTRACT

Packaging plays an important role in food industry. The huge waste of packaging generated every year poses a great threat to the environment. The recycling and reuse of the food packaging is limited. Plastic packaging in particular are the serious concern with respect to their disposal. This is the high time when eco-friendly green technologies for the food packaging should be explored. This chapter discusses various possibilities to use the green and eco-friendly approaches for food packaging.

Keywords: Green packaging, bio-degradable, recycle, reuse, edible packaging.

Application of HACCP concept in surveillance & quality assurance programs for raw, frozen, canned, cured, irradiated, cooked, chilled, MAP & freeze dried products.

HACCP

Hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) is a system that identify, evaluate and control hazards that are significant for food safety (CAC, 2003). It is a science based systematic approach that assesses hazards and establishes control systems to focus on prevention rather than end product testing. It enhances the safety of the product from biological, chemical, and physical hazards in a production process. It provides way to demonstrate competence to consumers and compliance with legislative requirements.

6.1. History

HACCP was originally developed by Pillsbury Company in 1959 to produce zero defect food for astronauts of National Aeronautics Space Administration (NASA) in USA. In 1971, the HACCP concept was presented at the United States National Conference on Food Protection. The first major document on HACCP was approved by the National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF) in 1989. The Codex then issued the first HACCP guidelines in 1993, which was adopted by the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). The USFDA’s Seafood HAACP program became mandatory in USA since 1997. The European Union, in 2004, laid down the general hygiene requirements of all food business operators (EC Regulation 852/2004) and the additional specific requirements for foods of animal origin, including live bivalve mollusks and fishery products which (Regulation EC 853/2004). The United States Food Safety Modernization Act 2011 became the latest enforcement of food safety measures to protect public health. Thus, HACCP has become an International reference system for food safety assurance.

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) is an internationally recognized method of identifying and managing food safety related risk and, when central to an active food safety program, can provide customers, the public and regulatory agencies assurance that a food safety program is well managed. HACCP is a management system in which food safety is addressed through the analysis and control of biological, chemical, and physical hazards from raw material production, procurement and handling, to manufacturing, distribution and consumption of the finished product. (FAO, 2003)

Mycotoxin hazard analysis and identification of possible control measures

I. Hazard Analysis

a) Identification of mycotoxin hazard

For a given commodity system in a particular location, the HACCP team need to first consider which, if any, of the mycotoxins known to constitute a food safety hazard are likely to be present. Over 300 mycotoxins are known, but only a relatively few of these are widely accepted as presenting a significant food or animal feed safety risk.

The following mycotoxins have regulatory limits set by one or more countries: the aflatoxins (including aflatoxin M₁), ochratoxin A, zearalenone, patulin, ergot alkaloids, and deoxynivalenol. Guideline limits exist for fumonisin B₁ and regulatory limits are likely to be set in the near future. The regulatory limits are taken as the target levels and should be included in the Product Description table. Mycotoxin limits can also be set by the customer in specific contracts and it is possible that these may include mycotoxins not subject to regulatory limits.

The “falling number” is a measurement used by plant breeders and grain quality specialists to determine the soundness of wheat, which is primarily influenced by the degree of sprouting in a grain sample. Hagberg Falling Number is the full name of this international standard of sprout measurement.  The term “falling numbers” refers to the amount of time it takes for the Hagberg steel ball in this sprout analysis tool to fall through a flour/water slurry that has been heated to release the starch from water. 

1. Introduction

Since the 1980s, the aquaculture industry has boomed due to growing market needs and limited natural harvesting options. To meet demand, high-density f ish farming methods have become popular, but overcrowding can stress fish, making them prone to diseases. The implications of diseases in aquaculture extend beyond mere mortality and morbidity, encompassing poor growth rates, inferior flesh quality, and diminished profit margins. Consequently, a critical imperative arises to implement preventive and therapeutic measures. Traditionally, chemotherapeutic agents, including antibiotics and disinfectants, have been employed for the treatment and prevention of various diseases in farmed fish. Nonetheless, their indiscriminate and continuous use raises concern, as it may foster the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, contribute to environmental pollution, and result in the presence of chemical residues in fish products. The existence of antimicrobial residues in food has garnered attention from the scientific community, given the associated risks to food safety and public health. These risks encompass not only antibiotic resistance (AMR) but also potential issues related to severe allergic reactions, carcinogenicity, renal dysfunction, mutagenicity, developmental toxicity, bone marrow depression, and disruption of the normal gut microbiota. Consequently, a reevaluation of preventive and therapeutic strategies in aquaculture is imperative to ensure sustainable practices without compromising human health (Bondad, Reantaso et al., 2023). The unregulated utilization of antimicrobial agents in aquaculture poses potential risks to human health. Consequently, several countries have implemented prohibitions on specific chemotherapeutics and are reluctant to import aquaculture products treated with antibiotics and chemicals. In response to these concerns, researchers have intensified their endeavors to explore natural alternatives for developing dietary supplements that can promote the growth performance, health, and immune system of cultured fish. In this context, the utilization of herbs emerges as a promising solution (Syahidah et al., 2015).

ABSTRACT

The concept of the Kissan Call Centres-KCCs (Farmers’ Call Centres-FCCs)) was a logical outcome of the Government of India’s (GOI’s) commitment to leverage the ICT for overcoming the constraints of distance and time in providing new generation extension services to the farmers of the country by facilitating their direct virtual contact with the agricultural extension and expert personnel. The study on KCC has shown that farmers in the age group of 29 to 48 years are the biggest user group of KCC helpline. In terms of academic background, farmers with a minimum exposure of six to seven years to formal schooling (86%) seek to utilize the KCC support and relatively inexperienced farmers with less than 10 years of experience are more likely (47.5%) to call the KCC. The scope to enhance awareness and access among women farmers to the KCC helpline is huge as their current levels of participation are negligible. As regards the performance of KCCs, 84% of the farmers who called the KCCs expressed overall satisfaction from the advice provided through the helpline.

Black Pepper and Pearl Millet Flour for Disease Control in Chickens: To treat a disease in chickens characterized by frothing at the mouth, frequent cackling, restlessness, and reduced food intake, 10-15 black pepper corns are ground and mixed with pearl millet flour and water to form small pellets. These pellets are fed to the chickens to increase body heat and help eliminate the disease (Sabarkantha, Gujarat) (Parmar, 1992a).

Use of Garlic Against Pulorum in Poultry Birds: To cure chicks affected by Salmonella pulorum, one or two peeled cloves of garlic (Allium sativa) are soaked in a cup of water for 12 hours. The water is then given to the chicks to drink, curing them in two days (Dahod, Gujarat) (Khant, 1999).

Poultry Disease Management: For treating an unidentified disease in poultry birds that kills them within a few days, tribals use various plant-based remedies:

1. Bark of ‘beda’

2. Small pieces of onion

3. Grains of paddy smeared with kerosene

4. Tuber of ‘dev-alad’ (Curcuma spp)

11.1 Control of Diarrhea in Animals Using Traditional Remedies

1. Strychnos potatorum Leaves: In Dahod, Gujarat, approximately 100g of kantas (Strychnos potatorum) leaves are crushed and soaked in water. This mixture is given to the ailing animals for three days (Sitaram, 1997).

2. Ventilago denticulata and Syzygium cumini Mixture: In Bori, Shahera, a mixture of asul (Ventilago denticulata) roots and jamun (Syzygium cumini) bark is crushed and administered with water to the suffering animal. This treatment typically cures diarrhea within 2-3 days. Asul is a creeper found year-round in hedgerows, and jamun is a common tree (Dalsukhbhai, 1993).

3. Decoction of Soymida febrifuga: In Shahera, Gujarat, fresh leaves of royan (Soymida febrifuga) are crushed and soaked in water for one hour. A 100-150 ml dose of this concoction is given to the animal, which usually brings relief within 24 hours. This remedy has a long history in the region (Dalsukhbhai, 1993).

4. Ficus hispida: In Panchmahal, Gujarat, roots of dedhumari (Ficus hispida) are washed, crushed, and soaked in water for one hour. The mixture is then filtered through cloth, and 100-200g of the filtrate is administered to the animal. The treatment typically takes effect within a day and completely cures the animal in about 2-3 days. Many farmers use this method, although they may also consult veterinary experts (Baria, 1993).

5. Umra Bark and Banana Plant: During the monsoon, diarrhea in animals is treated using umra bark and banana (Musa Paradisiaca) plant sap. About 500g of umra bark is pounded and mixed with 500ml of banana stem juice. The mixture is filtered, and the filtrate is given to the affected animal. One hour later, the animal is fed 250ml of groundnut oil, resulting in a cure within a day or two (Valsad, Gujarat) (Patel, 1996).

Introduction

Poultry industry is one of the quickest developing sectors in India. Poultry involves a remarkable position in the livestock economy of India by coexistence of intense technology, capital, and scale with integrated production, marketing and the others based on the traditional knowledge and practices. The annual growth rate is more than 11% and 8 % in broiler production and egg production respectively. The general development rate of poultry industry is around 7-8% for every annum, most outstanding among all sectors of agriculture. In poultry industry, poultry meat accounts for two third of the value of output and one third by eggs. 

INTRODUCTION

The medicinal values of plants are known since prehistoric times. Interestingly, 13000 BC old drawing on Lascaux caves in France suggests that humans were using plants for medicinal purposes. Ancient Egyptians chewed willow bark to relieve fever and headaches; and thousands of years later, scientists discovered that the bark contains salicylic acid- the active ingredient in aspirin. History reveals that in most of the countries natural products including plants, animals and minerals have been the basis of treatment of diseases both in human and veterinary medicines.
 
Plants as a source of medicine has been an ancient practice and is an important component of the health care system in India. The health management of people and domestic animals is based partially on the exploitation of natural resources, which needs proper documentation and research.

Livestock wealth is very precious for a developing country like India. In India, animal husbandry is no longer a subsidiary to agriculture or a backyard vocation. Animal husbandry has metamorphosed into an industry and the latest reports suggest that the contribution of animal husbandry sector to the GDP of the nation is substantially higher despite the meager input. Animal husbandry offers a better scope for marginal farmers whose income from agriculture is dwindling fast due to vagaries of monsoon, fragmentation of landholdings, pest problems, poor pricing etc. Though the growth of livestock industry is very promising, in order to make India a global leader in animal husbandry, it is imperative to integrate it with developments in other fields. The developments in Information Technology over the past few decades are tremendous and offer great potential in improving animal health through various measures like effective disease forecasting, rapid and accurate disease diagnosis, modern therapeutic measures etc.

Veterinary Informatics is the discipline concerned with the application of information science, engineering, and computer technology to support veterinary health care. Veterinary informatics and the larger field of medical informatics is often called health care informatics or biomedical informatics and forms part of the wider domain of e-health. Applications of Information Technology in different aspects of animal health are discussed below.

A nimal disease monitoring describes the ongoing efforts directed at assessing the health and disease status of a given population. The disease can be a specific infectious disease/diseases or health in general, whereas the monitoring activities are the routine recording, analyses and distribution of information related to the disease (or health). The term disease surveillance is used to describe a more active system and implies that some form of directed action will be taken if the data indicates a disease level above a certain threshold.

In today’s click-and-access kind of world, Information Technology is finding applications in every field and animal disease monitoring & surveillance is no exception. The various technologies which are applied are Geographic Information Systems, Global Positioning System, database management, computer aided design (CAD), computer network technologies, artificial intelligence (AI), expert systems etc.

1. Use of banana pseudostem in fish pond to enhance productivity of f ish: Pseudostems of banana, after harvesting the bunch, are added to the pond by cutting longitudinally, which increases the pH and oxygenation of pond water. This practice increases the fish yield. As it involves low cost, it is being followed by 80% of the farmers in Bastar village of Balasore district in Odisha.

2. ITKs on Craft and Gear Making / Maintenance (Vipinkumar et al., 2013): The major ITKs of scientific rationale identified in the craft and gear making and maintenance were ‘Sardine oil smearing on craft wood for improving the durability’, ‘Smearing cashew kernel oil on craft wood for durability’. Similarly, the durability of cotton nets was believed to be improved by dipping in banpu bark decoction. In the same way, beating nets with thalampu plant for ensuring strength was another one identified in craft and gear maintenance. The scientific validity assessment indicated that the boats of about 6.5 ft size length and 4.5 ft width require 3.5 to 4 litres of oil of sardine. The oil coasts about Rs 70/- per litre. Three cosequitive coatings followed by natural drying under sun are required for good results. Cashew smearing: The boats of about 6.5 ft size length and 4.5 ft width require 3.5 to 4 litres of cashew nut oil and the oil costs about Rs 40 -50/- per litre. Here also three cosequitive coatings followed by natural drying under sun are required for good results. Smearing Cashew kernel oil on craft wood for durability in Karwar of Karnataka is shown in photograph 1. For improving durability of nets, dipping nets in banpu bark decoction was practiced. The thalambu beating is nowadays not practiced due to the non-availability of those items. Instead, fisherfolk use a powder available in the market especially in the net shops. 1 kg of the colour powder (red/ blue) is required for 1 kg of net. The advantage is that the wastage due to mud coating and dirt can be rectified to a great extent.

1. Introduction

For millennia, civilizations worldwide have relied on medicinal plants for healthcare, with their usage documented as far back as ancient Sumeria. Today, traditional medicinal plants remain vital in many regions, especially in developing countries. Ethnobotanical studies have identified numerous bioactive plants, sparking extensive research into their biological activities and chemical compositions. Interest in medicinal plants has surged due to the drawbacks and costs of prescription drugs, leading to increased exploration of plant-based alternatives. Plants offer diverse chemical compositions with varied biological activities, making them suitable for treating complex diseases and posing little risk of antibiotic resistance development. Aquaculture, the fastest-growing sector in animal food production, faces challenges such as overcrowding and poor water quality, leading to disease outbreaks. While veterinary drugs are commonly used, their intensive use poses environmental and health risks, including antibiotic resistance and accumulation in animal tissues. Vaccines are effective but expensive and often limited in scope. Given the drawbacks of synthetic drugs, there's a growing need for alternative disease management strategies in aquaculture. Medicinal plants offer a promising solution, with reported bioactivities such as stress reduction, immune stimulation, and antiparasitic effects. By enhancing fish immunity and f itness, medicinal plants provide a cheaper and more sustainable alternative to chemotherapy in aquaculture (Cabello et al., 2006; Romero-Ormazabal et al., 2012).

Abstract

Microorganisms constituting the major fraction of the total biomass, are the main source of biodiversity in our planet and play an essential role in maintaining biogeochemical processes, which ultimately regulate the functioning of the Biosphere. Molecular ecological studies of microbial communities revealed that only a small fraction of total microbes in nature have been identified and characterized so far, since the majority of them are recalcitrant to cultivation. The emergence of ‘metagenomics’ have paved ways to the analysis and understanding of the genetic diversity, population structure, and ecology of complex microbial assemblages through culture – independent genomics-based approaches. The concept, metagenome, represents the total microbial genome in natural ecosystem consisting of genomes from both culturable microorganisms and viable but nonculturable bacteria. The construction and screening of metagenomic libraries in culturable bacteria constitute a valuable resource for obtaining novel microbial genes and products. Several novel enzymes and antibiotics have been identified through the metagenomic approach from many different microbial communities. This technology in the near future will provide breakthrough advances in the field of medicine, agriculture, energy production and bioremediation. This paper looks in to the various steps involved in metagenomic studies and how its potential can be utilized in the various aspects of agriculture to improve crop production and protection. The importance and role of bioinformatics in deciphering metagenomic data are also looked into.

Introduction

Biofertilisers are defined as preparations containing the living cells or latent cells of efficient strains of microorganisms that assist in the uptake of nutrients in crop plants by their interactions in the rhizosphere, when applied through seed or soil. They accelerate certain microbial processes in the soil, which augment the extent of the availability of nutrients in a form easily assimilated by plants. The increasing pressure of human and livestock population, indiscriminate extraction of forest produce, regular forest fires and mining activities have resulted in soil erosion, loss of fertility and moisture content and decreasing productivity of forests, which pose manifold problems for the restoration of the ecosystem.

Asiatic Elephant (Elephas maximus) is the national heritage animal of India. This particular species now exists in 13 Asian countries including India. As per 2017 census, India is home to an estimated figure of 29,964 elephants that is >60% wild population of the globe. Once distributed across the country, now they are squeezed to 14 states grouped in four regions ie., southern (14,612), north-eastern (10,139), east-central (3,128) and northern regions (2,085). There are 2675 captive elephants across different states under both private and government custody. This largest terrestrial mammal is protected under Seclude I species of Indian Wild Life Protection Act, 1972.

Both central and state Government are implementing short- and long-term programmes for health and well-being of captive as well as free-range elephants. The Central Government has established an ‘Elephant Cell’ at the Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Dehradun to provide technical inputs to the ministry for strengthening the efforts towards conservation of elephants. Add-on, the ‘Project Elephant’ was launched in 1991-92 in the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change to restore the elephant habitats and reduce their sufferings. Elephant habitats are notified as Elephant Reserves that are basic management units for elephant conservation and managements. A total of 33 Elephant Reserves has been notified in the country. A book titled, ‘Caring for elephants: Managing health and welfare in captivity’ is edited for field officers, veterinary professionals and elephant handlers.