eChapters

The processing of the seed refers to mainly pre-cleaning and sizing. The sizing is up gradation of seed lots based on size, shape or length. In this chapter processing with main reference to sizing or upgrading is given. Sizing or upgrading is done by using different screens in an air screen cleaner, gravity separator, seed blower, indent disc cylinder, belt grader or some time colour sorter. Here specific tasks like use of screens in an air screen cleaner, rubber belt angles when using a belt grader, disc type when using indent disc cylinder or special arrangements in a gravity separator are given. The details of the machines or equipments with the principles of working were already covered in Chapter-3.

Historic Cities Of India: Description And Its Classification

At this stage it is vital to take a look at ‘historic’ cities of our country with a view of better understanding, it is important to understand the basic components that constitute a historic city. Can we arrive at the number of such cities presently in India.

In the absence of an official definition of a ‘historic city’, it is hazardous to answer the above question in terms of a specific number. The census of India does define ‘urban area’ but does not venture to define historic cities. Considering the long history of its culture, it may be said that a majority of the Indian cities are historic.

Review of literature revealed that Indian historic cities need to be addressed with a deeper concern than they have been so far. The general trends of transformations of historic cities including Indian historic cities exhibit a recognizable pattern and it is possible to identify Indian historic cities on the basis of at least two indisputable grounds

Introduction

The apple (Malus x domestica) is an important temperate fruit and is grown in areas where winters are cold, springs are frost free, and summers are mild. The main ancestor of cultivated apple M x domestica is M. sylvestrii, Thomas Andrew Knight produced the first apple cultivar of known parentage. Apple is disomic and has complex polyploidy, tetraploid and partially hexaploid. The apple (Malus x domestica) is the most widely grown temperate fruit in the world. First in India, the apple was introduced by Captain Lee in 1865 in the Kullu Valley of H.P. Later on, red-coloured Delicious group varieties were introduced at Kotgarh in the Shimla district of Himachal Pradesh in 1917 by American missionary Mr. Satya Nand Stokes. The region that includes South Western Asia, the Caucasus, Soviet Central Asia, and the Hindu-Kush Himalayan region is thought to be the primary centre of apple origin. The apple plant is deciduous without spiny branches. Climacteric fruit. Dry temperate region is most suitable for apple cultivation in India.

Introduction

Chilli is one of the most important spice and condiment of daily use in all most all the Indian houses. The fresh and dry fruits are the rich source of Vitamin A (292 IU) and Vitamin C (111 mg/100g). Its pungency not only improves the taste of the different preparations but also improve their storability. The colour of the fruits is due to the presence of the pigment capsanthin and pungency and acridity is due to the presence of alkaloid oleoresins knows as capsaicin (C₁₈ H₂₇ O₃ N). The capsaicin has a very good medicinal importance and also having importance for the pharmaceuticals industries for preparation of the different types of the drugs, because of the presence of the antioxidants like Vitamin A, C and P (Rutin). The green and red sweet pepper, bell pepper, Pimiento (heart shape) and cherry pepper are used in the fresh market processing industries for stuffing pickling and dehydrated processed meat. It is used as green as well as dry powder, pickles, salad and for industry to prepare the medicines for external and internal uses.

Mechanical power is usually transmitted from one shaft to another by using belts, ropes, chains, gears and clutches.

1. Belts and ropes are utilized if distance between the shafts is large. Belts and ropes are flexible and bend easily. But slip occurs between the belt and the pulley.

4.1 Introduction

Discharge is also called as rate of flow. Discharge is defined as the volume of water flowing through a cross section in a unit time. It can be expressed as cubic metre per second (cumec), cubic feet per second (cusec), litre per sec (lps) etc. One cumec is equivalent to 35.5 cusecs or 1000 lps. The measurement of discharge is very important in everyday life starting from deciding the amount of irrigation to be supplied to a crop at a particular growth stage, or amount of water supply for domestic and industrial uses, for flood control and power generation etc. It plays a vital role in water resources planning. If a stage-discharge (also called as gauge-discharge) relationship for a particular gauging site is developed, then daily measurement of discharge in the gauging site is not required. Discharge can be estimated from the developed relationship of discharge versus stage if the measurement of stage is known.

Potato is an important crop of the world and grown in almost all the states in India. Apart from India, potato is grown in more than 100 countries but the intensity of cultivation varies considerably. For example in the Netherlands 19.6% of the total arable land is cultivated with potatoes. The figures for Germany, Peru and USA are 10.1%, 5.6% and less than 1% respectively. India ranks fourth in area (1.29 m ha) and third in production (25.23 m ton) in the world. The productivity of potato depends mainly on the quality and quantity of planting materials and the agronomic management practices adopted. Most of developing countries including India experience release of high yielding varieties, development of adequate agronomic and pest control measures but the gap between supply and demand of good quality adequate quantity seed has to be the major constraint in increasing its productivity. 

Introduction

Biochemistry of blood is extremely complex. It plays vital role in maintaining homeostasis with in the body. Blood is a specialized connective tissue which is a fluid that circulates all through the body in cardio vascular system. Blood consists of 55 per cent of plasma and 45 per cent of cellular components.

Plasma: A straw coloured liquid component of blood. Understanding the chemical basis of plasma is very crucial for diagnosis and treating various conditions. The compositional breakdown of plasma can be put forth as 90-92 % of water that acts as transport medium for the remaining 8-10 % of the solutes. Solutes further can be classified as electrolytes (salts), proteins, Lipids, other nutrients and waste products.

Plasma electrolytes: These are the minerals found in the blood that are electrically charged. Their role is very crucial in lot of physiological activities like

• Maintaining the balance of fluids interior and exterior to the cells.

• Carries electrical signals all through the body

• Helps in contraction of muscles

• Regulates blood pressure

SYNOPSIS

Animal source foods (ASF) include any food item that comes from an animal source such as meat, milk, fish, eggs, cheese and yogurt. Many individuals do not consume ASF or consume little ASF by either personal choice or necessity as ASF may not be accessible or available to these people. Animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce. Animal source foods (ASF) include any food item that comes from an animal source such as meat, milk, fish, eggs, cheese and yogurt.

Introduction

Fruits and vegetables are very important in a balanced diet. India has become the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables. Though, the production of fruits and vegetables make us believe in our strength for self-sufficiency, a significant qualitative and quantitative loss occurs in the produce from harvest till consumption. For self sufficiency and also for processing, export and to meet additional requirements, a lot of emphasis need to be given to reduce post harvest losses besides increasing production and productivity of fruits and vegetables. Though, processing plays an important role in conservation and effective utilisation of these perishable commodities, only less than three per cent of total production of fruits and vegetables are processed in India. The new industrial policy has placed this sector in the list of high priority areas.

Fruit and vegetable processing industry in the country is in a nascent and primitive stage. Number of establishments in the organized sector is less compared with several developed and developing nations. The technologies adopted for processing, preservation and value addition in medium, small and tiny industries are primitive and outdated. Processing of fruits and vegetables into various products using proper cost effective technology is a viable tool for improving economic status of farmers as well as our country. Fruit and vegetable preservation methods are broadly classified as (i) Physical methods: This includes removal of heat, addition of heat, removal of water and irradiation, (ii) Chemical methods: like salting or brining, addition of sugar and heating and by addition of chemical preservatives, (iii) Fermentation and (iv) Judicious combination of one or more of the above methods for synergistic effect.

Introduction

The main objective in analysing fertilizers is to assess their quality. The analysis examines both their physical and chemical composition. The quality of fertilizers is stated by the manufacturers and, in most countries, it is statutorily notified. Hence, analysis is carried out to determine whether the stated quality meets the statutorily notified standards or not. Together with the statutory notified composition of the fertilizers, the testing methods are specified. In situations where the testing methods are not notified, the prevalent standard methods are followed. Generally, the term fertilizer refers to mineral fertilizers, which are manufactured chemical products of standard composition, while the term manures refers to organic manures, compost, agro-industrial wastes, etc. The compositions of organic fertilizers, unlike mineral fertilizers, are quite variable and, thus, difficult to regulate precisely.

Fertilizer quality is notified in terms of physical and chemical characteristics. The physical parameters include moisture content and particle size. The chemical parameters refer to the amount and form of nutrients, and to various impurities that may be toxic to plants above a critical limit, e.g. biuret in urea. The efficiency of a fertilizer depends on its form of nutrient content. A phosphatic fertilizer may have water-soluble, citrate-soluble, water-insoluble or citrate-insoluble forms of phosphate. A nitrogenous fertilizer may contain ammoniacal, nitrate and amide forms of N in various proportions.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is an important statistical technique for separating variation attributable to different sources in an experiment. The chapter explains how total variation can be partitioned into controlled and uncontrolled components and how experimental error is used to assess treatment differences. The F-test provides the basis for testing the homogeneity of several treatment means simultaneously. The chapter discusses the assumptions underlying ANOVA, including independence, normality, additivity, and homogeneity of variance. It also introduces fixed- and random-effects models and explains their relevance to experimental analysis. Forestry and agricultural examples demonstrate the application of ANOVA for interpreting treatment and experimental effects.

The Hans Krebs cycle, known by different names like the citric acid or tricarboxylic acid cycle, was named after the scientist Hans Krebs. The citric acid cycle is named after the citrate product formed in the cycle. The name tricarboxylic acid is given as citrate itself, which is a tricarboxylic acid due to the presence of three carboxyl functional groups (-COOH).
The tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle occurs in aerobic conditions and within mitochondrial ETC, involving various sequential oxidoreductase reactions. The cycle requires Acetyl-CoA (C2 molecule) and oxaloacetate molecule (C4 molecule) to begin with the formation of a citrate molecule (C6 molecule). Acetyl-CoA is generated from the pyruvate (glycolysis), the fatty acids (lipolysis), or by oxidative deamination of specific amino acids. The complete oxidation of a glucose molecule results in the end products like energy (ATP), CO2 and H2O. A molecule of Acetyl-CoA has two carbons. It is formed from a three-carbon pyruvic acid molecule generated from the glycolysis of a sixcarbon glucose molecule. Acetyl-CoA is the substrate for this cycle and is an energy-rich molecule having a thioester bond between coenzyme A and acetic acid.
8.1 Formation of acetyl-CoA from Pyruvic Acid
Pyruvate is obtained by glycolysis or the oxidation of glucogenic amino acids. The pyruvic acid produced in the cytoplasm crosses the inner membrane of the mitochondrion to enter the mitochondrial matrix, where it undergoes oxidative decarboxylation, forming Acetyl-CoA. Acetyl-CoA carries (carrier molecule) the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle. It also links various metabolic products with the TCA cycle. Such products can be from the EMP cycle, beta-oxidation, and oxidative deamination of amino acids. Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvic acid needs a complex enzyme system known as pyruvate dehydrogenase

Introduction

Pineapple (Ananas comosus L.) is cultivated commercially in the tropics and parts of the subtropics of the world. It is greatly appreciated by consumers due to its pleasant sweet taste and flavour in addition to its nutritional and health promoting properties. Varieties differ greatly in both taste and shape. Each variety also has local types. Kew/Giant Kew variety is a leading commercial variety. Fruits are big sized (1.5-2.0 kg), oblong and tapering slightly towards the crown. Fruits with broad and shallow eyes become yellow when fully ripe. Flesh is light yellow, almost fibreless and very juicy. Queen fruits are rich yellow in colour, weighing 0.9-1.3 kg each. Flesh is deep golden yellow, less juicy than Kew, crisp textured, sweet with pleasant aroma and flavour. Baby-pineapples are mostly less than 500 g (Singh, 2016).

Pineapple fruits are consumed fresh. However, because of the unique structure of the fruit and the presence of very active protease, fruit does not find extensive use as a table fruit and hence is mostly processed into a number of products. Many types of value added products are obtained from pineapples which have got good domestic and international market. Proper processing and value addition will not only help to provide wide varieties of products to the market, but also help to reduce the losses of pineapple and will provide additional income to farmers.

Being an agricultural country with 1/5^th of the world’s population of cattle and half of the world’s buffaloes. The cows and bullocks are the backbone of agriculture and play major role in the rural economy. India stands first in milk production in the world. Corresponding increase in human population, the per capita availability of milk is 145 gm/day which is far lower than the recommended level of 285 gm/day/head.

Importance of Livestock Management

• Provides milk and milk products. Milk is a perfect food as it contains proteins, fat, milk sugar, minerals and vitamins. It is the only source of animal protein in vegetarian diet.
• Livestock gives us meat.
• Provides farmyard manure

Introduction

Modern agricultural systems that promote cultivation of a very limited number of crop species have relegated indigenous crops to the status of neglected and underutilised crop species. This has caused a decline in crop diversity in agricultural systems across the world and current research efforts have identified these underutilised crops as having potential to reduce food and nutrition insecurity. This is because of their adaptability to low input agricultural systems and better nutritional composition. Underutilised crops are otherwise known as undervalued or neglected or development opportunity crops (DOCs) (Kahane et al., 2013). They are already cultivated, but underutilised regionally or globally giving relatively low global production and market value. These underutilised crop species have also been described as “minor”, “orphan”, “promising” and “little-used”. Many of these traditional crops grown for food, fiber, fodder, oil and as sources of traditional medicine play a major role in the subsistence of local communities. With good adaptation to often marginal lands, they constitute an important part of the local diet of communities providing valuable nutritional components, which are often lacking in staple crops. Global Facilitation Unit (GFU) for Underutilised species define underutilised crops as, those plant species with under-exploited potential for contributing to food security, health (nutritional/ medicinal), income generation and environmental services.

Abstract

February 14, 2019 marks the third anniversary of the One Billion Rising campaign, a new escalation in violence against women that calls for a radical shift to end the global epidemic of abuse that women face worldwide. Violence against women continues to be on rise. This ill-omened barrier to achieving equality, development, peace as well as to the fulfillment of women and girls’ human rights has gone viral. The National Coalition against Domestic Violence reports that 1.3 million women are victims of domestic abuse each year. Violence against women is a serious problem in India, too. Overall, one-third of women age 15-49 have experienced physical violence and about 1 in 10 has experienced sexual violence. It is very disturbing as well as discouraging to think that a country that praises womanhood through epics and their devotion to goddesses can be so demeaning and indifferent when it comes to the common women living in the country. Amid environment of bleak hope, yog with multiple benefits of physical, psychological and mental stresses offers a ray of hope for women. Yog means connectivity with oneself that ignites power to understand strength of one’s own innerself, builds confidence to think of innovative attainments, endure the atrocities of external world and stay moralized. Yog classes run throughout the world providing relief to billions. Yog therapies are in operation to cure social stress, mental fatigue and physiological disorders etc. More research on yog, yog therapy and yogic interventions aided by political and social will are needed to have its effective implications on the women empowerment and sustainability of human world.

A canal of more than 80 cumecs (3000 cusecs) approximetly may be called as a high capacity canal.

It has already been pointed out in chapter 1, that for the best section of any shape, R is always equal to d/2 only, and such depth is the most optimum depth. But such channels are not always practical or most economical due to many other practical reasons, (see para 4.1 and 6.3) and many times shallower depth then this depth is adopted. Typical examples are lining of existing earthen channels, given in para 6.3.

All the best sections have fixed ratio of dimensions very near to the semi circle. For large discharges, radius of semi circle increases that, means depth of canal as well as velocity increases. But higher velocity is not permissible with every type of lining (see table 2.1 and para 2.3). Similarly depth also has limitation of construction, maintenance, stability of slopes, etc. see example–4.2.

Because of limiting velocities and depth, deeper canal section are not practically feasible/possible. Therefore for large discharges, say more than 100 cumecs, Mehboob or best trapizodal sections are just not possible/practical, and recourse has to be taken to trapezoidal section with increased bed width then depth. This section is hydraulically inefficient or uneconomical. Larger the B/D ratio, larger is the inefficiency and section is more costly. (For Mehboob Section, B:D ratio is zero and for best trapizodal section it is much less than 1, see para 3.1, table 3.1 para 3.5 and table 3.4).

INTRODUCTION

Among plant nutrients, our soils are particularly low in nitrogen and therefore, require is high doses of nitrogenous fertilizers for getting optimum productivity. Added to this is the problem of poor efficiency of nitrogeneous fertilizers which under normal conditions is only 40 – 50 %, still less for rice ranging from 25 – 35 %, and the residual effect for the succeeding crops is never more than 10 %. The rest of the applied nitrogen is lost either through volatilization, leaching or denitrification (Kashyap, 1978). The high cost of nitrogenous fertilizers and their poor utilization efficiency very much add to the high cost of cultivation. Hence, the need of the hour is to decrease our dependence on chemical fertilizers and increase the efficiency of the fertilizer thus used. The increase in nitrogen efficiency in crop plants can be achieved by reducing denitrification with the use of nitrification inhibitors, reducing the soil compaction, improving drainage conditions, use of soil improving crops, and adopting carefully the irrigation procedures (Carlson, 1980). No doubt exploration of this possibility is a big task, nevertheless, the understanding of physiology and biochemistry of nitrogen nutrition at molecular level is obligatory and is likely to add insight to achieve the hard task goal.

Abstract

Ber is an important fruit of India and South Asia. Its cultivation is gaining popular in recent years. The drupaceous fruits of ber are characterized by climacteric respiration phenomena and produce high amount of ethylene at ripening. It is very high in ascorbic acid content. Maturity and ripening is still judged by colour changes, as reliable maturity indices for particular cultivars are not fully established. Short shelf life is major problem in this fruit. Protocols for postharvest handling is not standardized, however, scattered information are available for postharvest behaviour and handling. Low temperature storage is beneficial and reduces respiration rates but simultaneously chilling injury is again hindrance in commercialization. Postharvest rot is major problem in storage. Therefore, focused research is needed to standardize the storage temperature and alleviation of chilling injury.