eChapters

Ducks are members of the order Anseriformes and belong to the family Anatidae. Ducks, swans and geese are all members of the Anatidae family; however, ducks are smaller and have a shorter neck. Ducks are tough birds that require little care or management. People all over the world enjoyed and consume duck meat and eggs. Ducks produce more eggs than hens. The size is also larger than that of a chicken. Ducks require less attention and perform well in scavenger hunts. Ducks are second only to chickens in many countries for meat and eggs. Ducks can be raised commercially or on a small scale for meat or eggs, even in backyards with other birds or animals. 

Stress, is usually defined as an external factor that exerts disadvantageous influence on the plant. In most cases, stress is measured in relation to plant survival, crop yield, growth (biomass accumulation), or the primary assimilation processes (CO2 and mineral uptake), which are related to overall growth. Some environmental factors (such as air temperature) can become stressful in just a few minutes; other may take days to become stressful or even months (some mineral nutrients) to become stressful. Different types of abiotic stresses that affect fruit production are; water stress, heat stress, chilling and freezing stress, salinity stress, flooding stress. Although, it is convenient to examine each of these factors separately, many are interrelated. For example, water deficit is often associated with salinity in the root zone/ or with heat stress in the leaves. Plants often display cross resistance, or resistance to one stress induced by acclimatization to another. This behaviour implies that mechanism of resistance to various stresses share many common features.

Plants encounter adverse environmental stresses during their life cycle, which have negative impacts on growth and greatly affect crop productivity. As perennial crops, fruit trees are exposed to an array of stresses for a long time once they are planted. If the trees are severely injured by environmental stresses, it would be hard for them to recuperate, leading to retarded growth and reduced fruit production. Furthermore, the negative effects of the stresses are not limited to the fruit production in the current year but can also extend to the next year(s). Therefore, it is of critical importance to develop techniques for reducing stress injury and/or improving stress tolerance in fruit trees for sustainable cropping, which can be fulfilled by the cultivation method or genetic engineering (Holmberg and Bulow, 1998). 

Introduction

In an era of liberalization of world trade where there is a continuous inflow and outflow of goods into and from a country, the need for developing competitiveness to sustain in global markets is extremely important. Technological progress and scientific advancements go hand in hand for the economic growth of a country and the Global Competitiveness index (GCI) which was revised in 2006 includes several factors such as institutions, infrastructure, health, primary and higher education, business sophistication, innovation, training etc. of nations to categorize them on the basis of competitiveness (Baig, 2006). Successful entrepreneurship development is a primary driver for the sustainable economic progress of any nation. The term ‘entrepreneurship’ has been defined by Cole (1968) as ‘“Entrepreneurship is the purposeful activities of an individual or a group of associated individuals undertaken to initiate, maintain or organize a profit oriented business unit for the production or distribution of economic goods and services”. An entrepreneur is an enthusiastic individual committed to bring change in the society through the successful implementation of innovative ideas. However, bringing together a package of resources by an entrepreneur for effective transformation into a profitable venture may require inputs from several institutions such as research and development sectors, financing organizations, and training and education providers. The role of R & D institutions in providing innovative technologies having commercial value and the requisite capacity building for prospective entrepreneurs is of prime significance. In this context, ICAR-Central Tuber Crops Research Institute under the aegis of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi is a premier research organization dedicated to the research and development of tropical tuber crops and has developed a plethora of technologies for the processing and value addition of tuber crops.

Vegetable breeding is the purposeful genetic manipulation of qualities in vegetable crops to create new varieties with a set of desired characteristics that are better suited for cultivation, give better yield, quality and are resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses. Vegetable breeding can be accomplished through many different techniques ranging from plant introduction, simply selecting plants with desirable characteristics, to more complex molecular techniques. Classical plant breeding includes hybridization followed by selection and mutation to develop the desirable plant types. With the advancements in genetics, molecular biology and in vitro culture, different molecular genetics tools are also being used in vegetable breeding.
Sexually propagated vegetable crops
1. Plant Introduction
The term “Plant introduction” describes the movement of crop plants, species, varieties, wild species, etc. from their original growing sites to other locations where it was not grown earlier. Plant introduction is essentially the method of cultivating crop plants in a new environments. The agro-climatic conditions can differ greatly depending on the origin of the plant species and the area where they are introduced. Plant introduction is a time-honored strategy for improving crop diversity.

OVERVIEW OF UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE (UAV) TECHNOLOGY
Agricultural drone technology employs drones equipped with cameras and sensors to assist farmers in monitoring crops, applying pesticides, and analyzing soil conditions. This technology assists farmers in making informed decisions, enhancing yields, and minimizing chemical application.
A drone is fundamentally a flying robot that can be operated remotely or autonomously through software-driven flight plans within its embedded systems, which integrate with onboard sensors and a Global Positioning System (GPS).
Drones are remotely operated or autonomous aircraft engineered to function without a pilot on board. They are also referred to as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). They has the capability to function alone or be managed by human operators.
• They have gained significant popularity in recent years owing to their extensive range of applications and uses. Drones are available in a range of sizes and configurations, from compact portable models to larger variants. They possess an array of equipment that enables optimal functionality.
• The fundamental components of a drone consist of motors, propellers, flight controllers, batteries, and remote control systems. The motor and propeller are essential for generating push to elevate the drone from the ground, whilst the flight controller functions as the drone’s brain, responsible for data processing and movement regulation.
• The battery energizes the drone’s electronic components, while the remote control systems enable the operator to maneuver the drone. The drone functions by an integration of electronic components and software algorithms.

India is the second largest producer of vegetables after China with 14 % contribution in total World vegetable production (1160 million tonnes). After the advent of green revolution, more emphasis is laid on the quality of the agricultural product along with the quantity to meet the ever-growing food and nutritional requirements. Both these demands can be met when the environment for the plant growth is suitably controlled. Olericulture a vital component of Indian Horticulture, which includes science and management of vegetables, has made a rapid stride during the last decade, recording appreciable growth in production (162.90 million tonnes against 81.89 million tonnes in 2000-01) and productivity (17.4 t/ha against 12.2 t/ha in 2000-01), availability (210 g/capita/day against recommendations of 300 g/capita/day) and export (36,94,860 tonnes worth Rs. 14,36,487 lakhs.) during 2013-14. Vegetables play a major role in Indian agriculture by providing food, nutritional and economic security and more importantly, producing higher returns per unit area and time (Srivastava et al. 2013). In addition, vegetables have higher productivity, shorter maturity cycle, high value and provide greater income leading to improved livelihoods. The total production of vegetables during 2013-14 was 162.90 million tonnes compared to 21.19 million tonnes in 1960-61, 81.89 million tonnes in 2000-01 and 146.55 million tonnes in 2010-11. Although, olericulture has exhibited leadership role but challenges are much greater. Looking to the requirement, which is estimated to be 225 million tonnes by 2020 and 350 million tonnes by 2030, which has to be produced from declining land and water resources and in the scenario of climate change, the task to meet the needs of growing population would be difficult but not impossible (Singh et al. 2014).

Introduction

Food safety and quality is the most important issue in the global food supply chain. Quality and safety of fresh as well as processed foods have an important role in the export of these commodities. Increasingly stringent food safety and agricultural health standards in industrialized countries pose major challenges for developing countries to establish in the international markets for high-value food products, such as fruits, vegetables, fish, meat, nuts and spices. Yet, in many cases, such standards have played a positive role, providing the catalyst and incentives for the modernization of export supply and regulatory systems and the adoption of safer and more sustainable production and processing practices. This has created an increased need for updated research and development to demonstrate and provide adequate evidences for their ability to identify and control food safety hazards, and deal specifically with food quality and safety.

Food quality is an increasingly important factor in the production and marketing of biological products. Consumers are becoming more discerning as their affluence increases, and hence the food industry/suppliers of products must meet these demands if they are to maintain or increase market share. The term ‘quality’ is one of the most defined terms used in food industry today. Quality may be defined as ‘the totality of features and characteristics of a product that bear on its ability to satisfy a given need’. The first part, ‘the totality of features and characteristics of a product…..’ concerns objective factors related to the product. The second part, ‘…… to satisfy a given need’, concerns subjective factors related to user or consumer of goods.

Introduction: N metabolism

Nitrogen is one of the three essential macronutrients for plant growth and yield (Su et al., 2005) and most crucial elements for root growth also (Fageria, 2014). Most macromolecules and a variety of secondary and signalling substances, such as proteins, nucleic acids, cell wall components, hormones, and vitamins, contain nitrogen (N), an important element. In order to assimilate nitrogen, nitrate must be reduced to ammonium, and then ammonium must be converted into amino acids. Perez et al. (1973) pointed out that the rice genotype with high protein yield translocated N from leaf blade to the developing grains more efficiently than the low protein genotype. This was reported due to a high concentration of free amino acids in the sap translocated to the developing grains rather than to differences in translocation rates. Therefore, proper understanding of N metabolism and amino acid translocation are prerequisite to comprehend higher grain protein in high yielding rice genotypes. Use of N by plants involves several steps including uptake, assimilation, translocation and remobilization; and recycling and remobilization when the plant is ageing (Fig. 1). The enzyme nitrate reductase (NR) assimilates nitrate, the main form of nitrogen available to agricultural plants in the field. This enzyme and the nitrogen status of various higher plant systems have a strong positive link, and growth, yield, or protein content can occasionally be connected to this enzyme’s level in seeds or leaves. Nitrate intake occurs at the root level, and it has been demonstrated that plants have two nitrate transport systems that work together to cohabit, absorb, and distribute nitrate from the soil solution throughout the entire plant. (Srivastava 1980) Following NO3- uptake by NO3- transporters and reduction of NO3- to NO2- by nitrate reductase (NR) in the cytoplasm, the process of NO3- assimilation commences (Lea and Miflin, 1974).

Plant disease causes losses estimated for 20-40 per cent of global crop. Climate change has a very complex effect on plant-pathogen interactions, since environmental conditions affect the whole disease triangle: they modify plant susceptibility, the biological cycles of parasites and pathogens, and hostpathogen physiology and interactions. Innovative plant protection strategies in horticultural crops encompass a wide range of techniques and approaches aimed at safeguarding plants from pests, diseases, and environmental stresses in a sustainable and effective manner. These strategies are essential for ensuring the productivity, quality, and resilience of horticultural crops while minimizing negative impacts on the environment and human health.

Climate change, including increased temperature, CO levels, acid rain, and tropospheric O 3 2 , stresses plants and lowers their pathogen response. While higher CO 2 reduces stomata density, acid rain and O weaken cuticle protection, aiding pathogen entry.

The effect of inbreeding and outbreeding was found in ancient time in animals and human beings since civilization. Hence, the phenomenon “Heterosis” was conceived since pre-Mendelian era. But in plants this phenomenon was recognized only 200 years ago. Koelreuter (1766) first published his scientific investigation on hybridization. Knight (1799) first recorded increased vigour following crossing. Mendel (1865) also observed increased vigour in pea hybrids. Charles Darwin (1876) suggested that cross-fertilization was beneficial whereas self-fertilization was injurious. However, the scientific concept of heterosis phenomenon was established in post-Mendellian era by the monumental work by East (1908) and Shull (1908).
General concepts of Heterosis
• Heterosis is the widely occurring genetically governed biological phenomenon involving both plants and animals.
• It frequently occurs in plants and is found mostly in cross-pollinated plant species than in self-pollinated plants.
• It is built in evolutionary mechanism favouring better survival of heterozygotes in nature.

The science of agrometeorology has great practical utility in protection against, or avoidance of adverse climate risks of crop production. Agrometeorological information can be used in efficient land use planning, determining suitable crops for a region, risk analysis of climate hazards and profit calculations in farming, production and harvest forecasts, and in adoption of farming methods and choice of farm machinery. Meteorological instruments are the equipments used to sample the state of the atmosphere at a given time. Meteorology does not use much laboratory equipments but relies more on field-mode in situ observation and remote sensing equipments. Rain was one of the first weather parameter to be measured historically. Two other accurately measured weather-related variables are wind and humidity.

An agrometeorological observatory or station is a place where all the necessary instruments and structures are installed and maintained to observe and record the weather parameters at stipulated time interval.

Introduction

Agriculture is the backbone of India as 50% of its work is engaged in agricultural activities enabling India self-sufficiency in food production. However, agriculture sector is facing several challenges such as reduction in arable land due to urbanization and industrialization, decrease in farm size due to family division, climate change, yield loss due to abiotic and biotic stresses like pest, disease and weed, proliferation of non-genuine/illegal agro-chemicals etc (Murali-Baskaran et al., 2019). FAO estimates that a total annual loss of 20 to 40 percent of global crop production due to pests. Each year, plant diseases cost the global economy around $220 billion, and invasive insects around US$70 billion. While in India, yield loss to crops is estimated as 26, 20, 6 and 8% by insects, plant pathogens, rodents and others, respectively with an annual loss of Rs. 2,25,000 crores annually. Traditionally, ITKs have been practiced by farmers to control pests based on three categories viz., (a) cultural practices, physical, mechanical methods and use of botanicals. Later, IPM has been implemented in various crops to curb such losses caused by biotic stresses. Although cultural, mechanical and biological control strategies are in practice, insecticide application has been the most widely used tactics to reduce such losses to achieve quick control and particularly in case of outbreaks/upsurges. In India 76% of the pesticide used is insecticide, as against 44% globally (Mathur, 1999). First generation insecticides such as sulphur, arsenic, calcium arsenate, copper acetoarsenite, hydrogen cyanide, lead were introduced during 1950’s which are simple, persistent, usually very toxic chemicals used in large scale which harm almost everything they come into contact with. Later second generation insecticide molecules like DDT, chlorinated hydrocarbon, organophosphates, carbamates, and pyrethroids have been introduced with few advantages over first generation molecules. Subsequently, insect growth regulators (IGRs) that mimic insect growth hormones preventing natural young insect moulting which are less harmful to mammals have been introduced. Then, during past decades, newer insecticide molecules have been introduced which are target specific, relatively safe to non-target organisms and low residual activity. In terms of pesticide production and consumption, India is the fourth largest user of pesticides in the world (FAOSTAT, 2017). India is one of the lowest consumer i.e. 0.5 kg/ha (0.06 mt) of pesticides in the world as compared to China (13.06/ha), Japan (11.85 kg/ha), Brazil (4.57 kg/ha) etc. The United Nations has declared 2020 as the International Year of Plant Health (IYPH). The main aim is to raise global awareness on how protecting plant health can help end hunger, reduce poverty, protect the environment, and boost economic development. FAO estimates that up to 40% of food crops are lost due to plant pests and diseases annually. This leaves millions of people without enough food to eat and seriously damages agriculture - the primary source of income for rural poor communities. .

Weed management in natural farming emphasizes natural, chemical-free methods that align with ecological principles. Instead of using herbicides or synthetic chemicals, natural farming promotes approaches that maintain biodiversity, improve soil health, and reduce weed pressure through various cultural, mechanical, and biological methods.
Here are key strategies for weed management in natural farming:
1. Mulching
Mulching is an agricultural and horticultural practice in which organic or inorganic materials are spread over the soil surface to protect and improve soil quality. In natural farming, mulching plays a key role by fostering a healthier ecosystem for plants without synthetic inputs.
Types of Mulch
Mulches are broadly categorized into organic and inorganic types:
• Organic mulch includes materials such as straw, leaves, grass clippings, crop residues, compost, wood chips, and sawdust. These materials decompose over time, enriching the soil with organic matter and nutrients.
• Inorganic mulch consists of materials like plastic sheeting, landscape fabric, and gravel. While these do not decompose, they effectively suppress weeds and retain moisture but do not improve soil fertility.

The Indian region is one of the world’s eight centres of crop plant origin and diversity, distinguished by Russian Scientist N.I. Vavilov. The region is home to a rich endemic assemblage of plants. Scrub jungles, grasslands, dry and moist deciduous forests, semi-evergreen and evergreen forests are the variety of vegetations along the Ghats. The complex terrain and heavy rainfall have helped to preserve flora and fauna in this region. The Western Ghats are an area of exceptional biological diversity and conservation interest, and are “one of the major Tropical Evergreen Forest Regions in India”.  This region is extremely rich in floristic diversity and most of the species are not exploited so far. There are many underutilized endemic flowering plants found in Western Ghats having ornamental value. 

Flora of Western Ghats
 The Western Ghats cover only 5% of India’s total geographical area but contains more than 27% (4000 species) of  country’s total plant species (Nayar, 1996). The Western Ghats, also known as the Sahyadris, extend about 1600 km. starting in North from Tapti river and going down to Kannyakumari in the South. These ranges run parallel to West coast hardly 40 kilometres away on an average from shoreline. The Western Ghats run through states of Maharastra, Goa, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Kerala. Elevation of Western Ghats is in  900 – 1500 m and in some places goes beyond 2000 m. The Western Ghats form major watershed in Peninsular India and  58 major Peninsular Indian rivers originate from them.

Abstract

Modern agriculture has disturbed the age-old balance of host-pathogen system resulting diseases occur at regular interval leading to enormous loss to the agricultural production, which is estimated to be 10-25% or less during normal years but may extend up to 100 % during epidemic. Broadly, there are two breeding approaches adopted for disease resistance which includes conventional and molecular one. Conventional approach includes pureline, pedigree, backcross, recurrent selection and interspecific hybrids through which various resistant varieties has been developed. However, after sometime there is sudden outbreak of diseases due to continuous sowing of these varieties which results in the advancement in molecular biology and with the discovery of trait linked markers it paved a new pathway to look a new corner to develop varieties which are disease resistant. Molecular approach consists of gene pyramiding through which two or more genes providing resistance to different types of diseases is introgressed in a particular variety, gene deployment and multiline varieties which consists of heterogeneous population formed by mixing the cultivars to differ in the ability of disease resistance and reduces the rate of epidemic development. With the help of makers in marker assisted breeding using foreground, recombinant and background selection several linked markers are identified which provides resistance against disease like in wheat stem rust, leaf rust etc.

Introduction

The tenet “Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food,” said by Hippocrates nearly 2,500 years ago, is receiving renewed interest. In particular, there has been an explosion of consumer interest in the health enhancing role of specific foods or physiologically active food components called as functional foods [1]. Clearly, all foods are functional, as they provide taste, aroma, or nutritive value. Within the last decade, however, the term functional as it applies to food has adopted a different meaning - that of providing an additional physiological benefit beyond that of meeting basic nutritional needs.

Weather conditions strongly influence crop growth, irrigation requirements, pest and disease development, and final agricultural productivity. This chapter examines the application of artificial intelligence, machine learning, and deep learning for agricultural weather forecasting and predictive analytics. It explains how historical meteorological records, satellite observations, and IoT sensor data can be integrated to develop more accurate forecasting systems. Techniques such as Long Short-Term Memory networks, attention mechanisms, ensemble learning, and probabilistic forecasting support improved prediction of complex weather patterns. The chapter connects forecasting with agricultural decision-support systems for irrigation, pest management, and crop planning. It also considers data heterogeneity, missing observations, uncertainty, and future developments such as hybrid models, federated learning, and digital twins.

California’s Napa Valley, situated at the northern end of the San Francisco Bay 30 miles (48 kilometers [km]) from the Pacific Ocean, is the most famous wine appellation in the United States. This small valley, 56 km long and 8 km wide at its broadest point, has produced some of North America’s finest wine grapes from the 1850s to the present. Today it contains approximately 18,616 hectares [ha] of vineyards along the valley floor, in the foothills and mountains flanking the main valley and in the smaller valleys in the eastern part of Napa County [45].

Monsoons are vital atmospheric circulations that govern the climate and livelihoods of vast populations across the globe. Characterized by seasonal reversals in wind direction and associated shifts in precipitation patterns, these systems are critical for agriculture, water resources, and overall socio-economic stability in many regions. However, the delicate balance of monsoon systems is increasingly threatened by climate variability, leading to significant disruptions and challenges, particularly in the form of severe droughts. Recent years have witnessed the devastating impact of drought in numerous monsoon-dependent regions across the world. In India, heavily reliant on the summer monsoon, failures have caused significant water shortages and poor crop yields, particularly in vulnerable regions like southeastern Maharashtra and Rajasthan. The consequences extend to groundwater depletion and increased irrigation demands. The impact of recent droughts is not limited to Asia. The African continent has also faced severe consequences. The Horn of Africa experienced a particularly devastating drought from October 2020 to 2023, resulting in widespread harvest failures, livestock losses, and displacement, marking the worst drought in four decades. West Africa has similarly suffered from frequent droughts causing crop failures, rising food prices, and exacerbating income inequality. South America, too, has experienced significant impacts. Argentina faced a severe drought in late 2022 and early 2023, halving wheat and soy harvests and impacting exports. In Uruguay, this drought led to a lack of access to drinking water for thousands. Brazil has seen harvest failures and reduced agricultural GDP due to drought, also threatening its hydroelectric power generation. Furthermore, the Amazon rainforest has been affected by intensifying droughts, leading to increased tree mortality, a higher risk of forest fires, and significant impacts on biodiversity and local communities due to drastically reduced river levels. Recent years have witnessed the dual impact of extreme weather events in numerous monsoon-dependent regions. In India, while facing drought in many areas, heavy monsoon rains have also caused catastrophic flooding. In July 2021, the coastal regions of Maharashtra experienced severe flooding affecting millions and causing hundreds of deaths. Major events like the 2022 Assam floods and the 2023 North India floods further exemplify the destructive potential of intense monsoon rainfall. The African continent also experiences significant flooding during its monsoon seasons. In 2024, West and Central Africa, including countries like