eChapters

During his visit to India, President Barak Obama pointed out that our country is fortunate to have a youthful population with over half of the total population of 1.2 billion being under the age of 30. Out of the 600 million young persons, over 60 per cent live in villages. Most of them are educated. Gandhiji considered the migration of educated youth from villages to towns and cities as the most serious form of brain drain adversely affecting rural India’s development. He therefore stressed that we should take steps to end the divorce between intellect and labour in rural professions.

The National Commission on Farmers (NCF)(2004-06) emphasised the need for attracting and retaining educated youth in farming. The National Policy for Farmers, placed in Parliament in November 2007, includes the following goal of the new policy:

To introduce measures which can help to attract and retain youth in farming and processing of farm products for higher value addition, by making farming intellectually stimulating and economically rewarding.

Food is basic to human being and agriculture is the catalyst between the two which is basically supported by natural resources. The human being is entirely dependant on food and food is fully dependent on agriculture and humanity. Eventhough food, agriculture and humanity have their own entity; they are inseparable for the survival and existence of each other. Hence, the three pillars of food, agriculture and humanity forming a triangle symbolize the roots of human civilization.

I find myself fortunate to have the opportunihj to live and experience the working life of the farmers and the farming in Kansas (USA), Nigeria (Africa), Saudi Arabia and Yemen (Middle East), Italy (Europe) and India, Myanmar and Thailand (Asia). It zvas fiirther strengthened by visits to farmers in another about 100 countries. Day after day and month after month and even years, it made me to realize that community culture, language and farming in each state, country and continent are different from each other but some things are common and that they are all doing farming, they are growing food and they all doing for the livelihood of their families, neighbors and communities near and far (Nath, 2011).

The foundation of agriculture is laid on available natural resources e.g. land, water, sunlight, air, plant, animal and human beings. The human beings, being the leader to manage the resources have contributed to redefine agricultural science and promote and develop technology. This has led to augment agriculture and its science and technology. At the end, the human efforts have brought about changes and improved agriculture production at the cost of excessive use of natural resources, knowing well that without natural resources, without good soil and water hardly anything will survive.

Presently world produces enough to feed the present human population, but it is not available to millions of people. It is not the lack of availability of food but is the unequal distribution and lack of entitlement which are causing hunger and malnutrition in millions of population.

7.1 Investment Analysis for Agribusiness Projects

Financeis the Art and science of managing money. Financial Management is the manage rial activity concerned with the planning and controlling of the firm’s financial resources. Finance can be classified as Public finance, Private finance (Personal & Business), and finance for Non-Profit organizations. The objectives of financial management are Profit Maximization and Wealth Maximization.

The Cash flow is the net amount of cash and cash-equivalents moving into and out of a business.The types include Operating Cash Flows, Investing Cash Flows and Financing Cash Flows. Annuity cash flows are a series of periodic cash flows of equal amount. The time value of money is the change in the value of money as a result of change in the time duration. They are broadly classified into Future Value of Money and Present Value of Money.

Capital Budgeting is long-term planning form aking and financing proposed capital outlays. It is the process of making investment decisions in capital expenditures. The influential factors ofCapital Budgeting are Urgency, Degree of certainty, Intangible factors, Legal factors, Availability of funds, Future earnings, Obsolescence, Cost considerations, R&D projects and Competitivepressure.

ABSTRACT

The Cry2A proteins are promising candidates for managing the development of Cry1Ac resistance in insects. The Cry2A class of proteins is different from that of Cry1A, and experiments have shown that insects resistant to Cry1Ac are not cross-resistant to Cry2A proteins. However, the Cry2A proteins are less toxic than Cry1Ac to the polyphagous pest Helicoverpa armigera. Structure-based protein engineering of Cry toxins may pave the way for directed evolution of variants with broad spectrum of insect species specificity, enhanced potency, and stability. In the present study homology modeling of Cry2Ac was done using DeepView software. The template for Cry2Ac protein sequence (accession number X57252) was selected using ExPdb template search. The raw sequence of the Cry2Ac was superimposed over the Cry2Aa PDB template (1I5P). The superimposed model was submitted to the SWISS Model server. After receiving the Cry2Ac model, energy minimization was done using Gromos96. The threading energy and force field energy were calculated. The homology model of Cry2Ac made by us along with the Cry2Ac model from the SWISS-MODEL Repository was used for comparative analysis of receptor binding regions of Cry2Aa. Results showed variation between the two highly homologous Cry2A proteins in their receptor binding regions which may account for differences in spectrum of insecticidal activity.

Carrot (Daucus carota Stova condolle) is one of the most important and widely used root vegetable belonging to the family Umbelliferae. The seed production can be done during September – October in plains and in hills the sowing takes place in June and roots are replanted during the first week of October.

Method of seed production

Carrot is a cross-pollinated crop and self-pollination occurs to the extent of 0-5%. Crosspollination is mainly through insects. Seeds should be allowed to set by cross-pollination in isolation. Seed production is done by seed to seed and root to seed method. In seed to seed method, the matured roots are left to produce flowers and seeds in the place where seeds are sown initially. In root to seed method, roots at edible maturity should be uprooted and the roots of true to varietal characteristics should be selected and transplanted to the well prepared field after proper trimming of roots and shoots. This root to seed method is preferred for seed production in carrot since the root rot infection is high in seed to seed method of seed production.

The isolation distance maintained between the fields of other varieties and the fields of the same variety not conforming to varietal purity requirements for certification is 1000 metres for foundation and 800 metres for certified seed production. During mother root production an isolation of 5 metres should be followed.

Agriculture is dependent directly on weather and indirectly on the consequences of climate change. Changes in temperature, precipitation, incoming solar radiation and CO2 concentration are expected to impact crop growth to a greater extent. The overall impact of climate change on worldwide food production is considered to be low to moderate only when there is successful adaptation strategies towards climate change (IPCC, 1998). Global agricultural production could be benefited by the doubling CO2 concentration. All sectors including agriculture will be impacted by the adverse effect of climate change imposed on water resources (Gautam and Kumar, 2007; Gautam, 2009). India is expected to face more seasonal variation in temperature with more warming in the winters than summers (Christensen et al., 2007; Cruz et al., 2007). The frequency of drought occurrence is increasing due to variations in the monsoonal rainfall. Climate change is posing a great threat to agriculture and food security. Water is the most critical agricultural input in India, as 55% of the total cultivated areas do not have irrigation facilities.

Even with the variations in climate conditions, food accessibility for the present generation is assured, but as far as the future is concerned there is still the uncertainity of agricultural production. All climate models predict that there will be more extreme weather conditions, with more droughts, heavy rainfall and storms in agricultural production regions. Such extreme weather events will inf luence pest and disease occurance, imposing severe risks of crop failure. In India, climate change could be a potential threat towards food security due to population growth, industrialization and economic development. India’s climate could become warmer under conditions of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Introduction

Genetic variability is essential for the evolutionary success of all organisms. In diploid eukaryotic the processes of crossing over exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes and meiosis contributes to his variability. In haploid, asexually reproducing prokaryotic organisms, genetic recombination may occur by conjugation transduction, and transformation. In this experiment only the process of conjugation is considered.

Conjugation is a matting process during which a one direction transfer of genetic material occurs at physical contact between two sexually differentiated cell types. This differentiation or existence of different mating strains in some bacteria, is determined by the presence of a fertility factor of F factor, within the cell. Cells that lack the F factor are recipients (females) of the genetic material during conjugation and are designated as F^- . cells possessing the F factor have ability to act as genetic donors (males)during the mating. If this F factor is extra chromosomal (a Plasmid or episome), the cells are designated as F⁺; most commonly only the F factor is transferred during conjugation. If this factor becomes incorporated into the bacterial chromosome there is a transfer of chromosomal genes, although generally not involving the entire chromosome or the F factor. The resulting cells are designated as Hfr, for high frequency recombinants.

1.1. Weeds

Plants that are unwanted in a given situation and may be harmful, dangerous or economically detrimental.

Weed invasion ranked second to habitat loss in causing biodiversity decline.

Major threat to both the productivity of land and water and integrity of natural ecosystems.

There are many manufacturers of biofertilizers in both government and private sectors. Only some of them have been listed here for the information

A neurotic headache, usually reflex in origin and paroxysmal in character.

The causes are many and varying in kind, making both the diagnosis and treatment the most difficult the general practioner encounters,

Migraine is clearly a hereditary condition, and the inheritance is passed down through the females rather than the males. Nervous abnormalities of the female generative organs are the most frequent of the exciting causes. Eye strain; shock; grief; worry; gastro-intestinal irregularities; mental emotions, i.e., anger, fear, love, jealously and remorse may cause migraine at one time and hysteria at another.

Many patients have lived, to suffer from the disease, for fifty years. On the other hand, many are permanently cured. The time needed to complete the cure will depend upon your ability to determine the tissue or organ, which is the cause of the disease, and the faithfulness with which the patient will follow directions.

Next to epilepsy, no disease so frequently presents premonitory symptoms as Hemicrania. These may be blurring of visions, flashes of light, balls of fire, etc.; chilliness; flashes of heat; dizziness; depression or excitation; confusion of ideas; numbness, etc. then comes the pain which is usually one sided, and may be any or all sensations, sharp or dull, continuous or intermittent, etc. There may or may not be tenderness of the affected part.

27.1. Aim

To estimate the titratable acidity of fresh and processed fruit and vegetable products.

27.2. Theory

Most of the fruit, vegetables and their products contain acid or mixture of acids. The acids may occur naturally in the fruit and vegetables or may be added during manufacture of different products or by lactic acid or acetic acid fermentation. Generally citric acid is added in most fruit products while in pickles, sauces and ketchup acetic acid is used. The acids are mainly responsible for the tartness or sour taste, thus estimation of acidity is used as the measure of tartness. They also help in preservation by lowering the pH of the finished products.

An economy is a human-made system developed or adapted to fulfill societal needs. There are three main types of economic systems namely mixed economy, capitalist economy, and socialist economy. The following are some key features of an economy:
• The type of an economy is determined by the ownership of resources and the means of production.
• Resources or means of production may be privately owned, allowing individuals the freedom to use them for profit, or they may be collectively owned and controlled by the government for the overall welfare of society.
• The three types of economic systems are classified based on the extent of individual freedom and the role of profit motive in each. 19.1. Capitalist Economy The capitalist, or free-market, economy is the most traditional form, where government involvement in economic activities is minimal.
Main features of a capitalist economy
1. Private property: In a capitalist economy, individuals have the right to own property, acquire assets, and utilize them for personal gain. There are no limitations on owning land, machinery, mines, or factories for profit and wealth accumulation.
2. Freedom of enterprise: Individuals have the freedom to choose any occupation they wish to pursue. The concept of free enterprise means that businesses are free to acquire resources and utilize them to produce any goods or services. Additionally, firms have the liberty to sell their products in any market of their choice, while workers have the right to select their employer.

The Indian Himalayan region is a well known abode to numerous plants of medicinal significance. The Western Himalayan ranges are home to a diverse flora of variety of endemic medicinal plants making it a biodiversity-rich region (Samant et al., 1998).  The ancient system of traditional medicines has been using these endemic medicinal plants since time immemorial. Of late the resurgence of herbal system of medication has led to an unprecedented rise in extraction of such plants from the wild for medical preparations. Most of the times the plant collection is unscientific and unthoughtful of ecological status of the medicinal plant, especially herbs. As a result, unplanned collection and other human interferences have brought a threat to survival of several important medicinal plants of the IHR an  example being  Brahmakamal.

Dispersal means the spreading of weeds from one place to another place. Dispersable of weeds generally takes place through seeds and vegetative parts. Dispersal of mature seeds and live vegetative parts of weeds is nature’s way of providing non-competitive sites to new individuals.

    (a)    Dispersal of weeds through seeds: Seeds are protector and propagator of their kind. Weeds seeds remain viable for a long time and their dispersable mainly takes place through natural and human agencies.

The National Food Security Bill 2011, which is now on the website of the Union Ministry of Food and Consumer Affairs for public comments, aims to make the Right to Food a legal right. During the last seven years, the country has witnessed a transition from political patronage to legal entitlements in the case of education, information, work and land rights in tribal areas. When finally enacted, the Food Security Bill will be the brightest jewel in the crown of Indian democracy. Therefore, public scrutiny of the draft Bill is important. The draft Bill mentions that its aim is “to provide for food and nutritional security in human life-cycle approach by ensuring access to adequate quantity of quality food at affordable prices, for people to live a life with dignity”. Unfortunately the Bill is its present form will not be able to fulfill this inspiring objective.

The legal commitment contained in the Bill implies that every child, woman and man should have physical and economic access to balanced diet on the basis of a life-cycle approach, i.e., from conception to cremation. Nutrition security involves access not only to the needed calories and protein, but also to micro-nutrients like iron, iodine, zinc, vitamin A, and vitamin B12. In addition, clean drinking water, sanitation and primary health care are essential for ensuring that food is properly assimilated in the body.

Introduction

First feed mill was established in 1875 A.D. in the state of Illinois, U.S.A. for calf meal production.

First feed mill in India was established in Ludhiana, Punjab in 1969 A.D.

1. International Rice Research Institute is located at

   a) Mexico

   b) Philippines

   c) Nigeria

   d) Columbia

2. Use of combining ability as a measure of gene action was first suggested by

   a) Wright (1921)

   b) Griffing (1956)

   c) Sprague and Tatum (1942)

   d) Hayman (1954)

Introduction

Mutation refers to any heritable change in the base sequence of a DNA molecule. A mutagen is a physical of chemical agent that causes mutations to occur (or increase the frequency of their occurrence). Mutagenesis is the process of producing a mutation. If the mutation occurs in nature without the addition of a mutagen, it is referred as a spontaneous mutation, and the resulting mutants are spontaneous mutants. If it caused by a mutagen, the process is induced mutagenesis.

Ultraviolet light is a fairly potent mutagen. The main DNA lesions are two chemically different types of covalent dimers: cyclobutane-pyrimidine dimers and pyrimidine dimers. The pyrimidine dimers only account for 20% of the total dimers but are correspondingly more mutagenic. In E. coli the number of mutants induced by ultraviolet (UV) light can be reduced by exposure to visible light (photoreactivation), which implicates cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers since dimers can not be photoreactivated.

Aromatic amino acid of proteins, and purine as well as and pyrimidine bases of nucleic acid absorb ultra violet radiation. Pyridine bases, particularly thymine of DNA is the main target compound involved in bactericidal action of ultra violet radiation. The energy absorbed by thymine causes it to under go a photochemical reaction with adjacent ( adjoining) thymine molecule in same DNA strand. DNA replication is blocked because the formation of thymine: thymine (T:T) dimmers. As the dosage increase, cytosine-thymine (C:T) to (C:C) cytosine-cytosine dimmers can be found to add the lethality of ultra violate radiation.

Eastern blotting is a technique to detect protein post translational modifications (PTM) and is an extension of the biochemical technique of western blotting. There are multiple versions of the method, but in general proteins or lipids are blotted from one or two-dimensional SDS-PAGE gel on to a PVDF or nitrocellulose membrane are analyzed for post-translational protein modifications using probes that may detect lipids, carbohydrate, phosphorylation or any other protein modification. Eastern blotting should be used to refer to methods that detect their targets through specific interaction of the PTM and the probe, distinguishing them from a standard Far-western blot. The most common application is lectin blotting, however, a variety of other probes can be used for detecting different PTMs.

History and Multiple Definitions

Definition of the term Eastern blotting is somewhat confused due to multiple sets of authors dubbing a new method as Eastern blotting, or a derivative therof. All of the definitions are a derivative of the technique of Western blotting developed by Towbin in 1979. The current definitions are summarized below in order of the first use of the name, however all are based on some earlier works. In some cases, the technique had been in practice for some time before the introduction of the term.

Soursop, Annona muricata L., also called as Bullock’s heart, is a larger fruit than custard apple. The flesh is spinny and has a white fibrous flesh in which large black seeds are embedded. It is completely tropical in habitat. It resembles small jackfruit with spines on the surface. Soursop is native to the West Indies. It is very popular in Cuba and Mexico. It is found in India and many other parts of Polynesia.

Uses

Soursop is used for the preparation of sherbet and other refreshing drinks. In Indonesia, the tender fruit is used as a vegetable. Seeds have insecticidal properties and leaves contain an essential oil. Excellent jelly can be prepared from soursop fruit. Unripe fruit powder is prescribed for chronic dysentery. Buds and flowers are considered to be an excellent remedy for cough. Soursop is used as an astringent and also as a blood complement. It has the use as an antidysentric and vermifuge. A black dye is produced from the dye unripe fruit. Seed oil is used as an insecticide and for making agriculture implement. Essential oils extracted from soursop (pulp) have industrial applications and the oils are also thought to improve the flavour of processed fruit products.