eChapters

INTRODUCTION

India is rich in biodiversity and possesses about 108276 species of insects. Indian subcontinent is one of the mega biodiversity countries of the world occupying ninth position in terms of freshwater mega biodiversity (Mittermeier et al., 1997) comprising 30 order (Dijkstra et al. 2013). Inland wetlands of India serve as the habitat for more than 500 species of aquatic insects which are represented predominantly by Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Odonata (dragonflies) and Trichoptera (caddisflies), (Subramanian and Sivaramakrishnan, 2007). Aquatic insects play important ecological roles in keeping freshwater ecosystems functioning properly (Choudhary and Janak, 2015). The aquatic insects are important part of aquatic ecosystem which play vital role in ecosystem functioning and are known to be representative of structure and function of freshwater ecosystem due to their high abundance, high birthrate with short generation time, large and rapid colonization (Choudhary and Ahi 2015). Aquatic insect function on multiple trophic level such as shredders, collectors, scraper and predators on animal debris, wood and leaf litter reaching the wetland from the surrounding landscape. Nutrients processed by aquatic insects are further degraded into absorbable form by fungal and bacterial action. Plants in the riparian zone absorb this nutrient soup transported through the wetlands. In addition to this significant ecosystem function, aquatic insects are also a primary source of food for fishes and amphibians (Tachet et al., 2003 ; Kumar, 2014).They interact in nutrient cycling within lentic and lotic systems and are regarded as an effective bioindicator (Lundquist and Zhu 2018) and serve as an important component of natural foodweb in aquatic ecosystem. However, the aquatic insect fauna of this part in India is inadequately documented. Therefore, present study carried out to delineate the baseline status of aquatic insects of Anandwan lakes at Warora Dist: Chandrapur.

Introduction

Scope and importance

Aquaculture is breeding, rearing and husbandry of aquatic animals such as f ishes, crustaceans and molluscs for food, ornament and sports. It is a husbandry involving special animals, the cold blooded vertebrates and invertebrates, whose physiology, growth, metabolic activities and overall performance depend heavily on ambient aquatic temperature and environment. Therefore, husbandry and the health management of aquatic animals is quite different from that of the other land based warm blooded animals.

Aquaculture is one of the fastest growing food production sectors in the world including India. Three decades ago, few species were cultured in India mainly in inland waters and then aquaculture was contributing less than 10 % of total f ish production in the country. In the last 25 years, there is a rapid growth in aquaculture with annual rate of 7-8% with significant contribution (above 60%)to total fish production today. The number of species cultured today in India including ornamentals is close to 40. Besides, a good number of plant and animal fish food organisms are cultured to support the hatcheries and nurseries in aquaculture. The area under aquaculture is increasing steadily in inland and coastal brackish water while marine water is also being added up for aquaculture slowly and steadily. Very interestingly, non-traditional environment such as manmade saline soils are also explored successfully for aquaculture. Intensification of culture activity with high stocking density artificial feed and fertilizers is another dimension of aquaculture noteworthy. Large scale movement of aquatic animals and their raw or processed products across national and international borders is important from aquaculture production and health point of view. In general, aquaculture package of practices alter the very water in terms of its chemistry and microbial load and has significant negative impact on the health of fish in culture system.

Aquatic plants are recognized as a valuable forage crop, ideally utilized in their fresh state, dried as hay, or preserved as silage. Their suitability and profitability vary depending on the type of livestock being fed. These crops do not occupy arable land and require no investment for cultivation; however, there are costs associated with harvesting. Feeding aquatic plants directly in their natural habitat is infrequently feasible due to factors such as water depth, risks posed by mud and pathogens, and potential contamination of the water by livestock.
1. Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes): Water hyacinth is a perennial herb that floats freely on the surface of freshwater, including rivers, lakes, canals and ponds. In India, the dried form of water hyacinth or its ensilage is utilized as feed for cattle, owing to its high protein content. The amino acid composition of water hyacinth renders it an appropriate feed option for pigs as well. Typically, the plant is chopped and fed directly to livestock; however, its palatability is compromised by the presence of oxalate crystals in the leaves, which can cause oral irritation in animals. Additionally, cattle may experience adverse effects such as diarrhea and increased urination when consuming water hyacinth. This issue can be mitigated by supplementing the diet of adult cattle with groundnut and paddy straw alongside water hyacinth. Ensiling is an effective preservation technique that improves the palatability of water hyacinth. Due to its high moisture content, it is advisable to wilt the plant in the shade for 48 hours, or alternatively, prepare silage by mixing it with straw in a 4:1 ratio. The addition of molasses is to enhance the soluble carbohydrate content. The DCP and TDN in the silage are measured at 5.64% and 40.26%, respectively. The nutrient composition of water hyacinth includes 5.80% DM, 18.30% CP, 22.60% CF, 2% EE, 21.10% TA, 9.50% Ca and 6.30% P. The nutritive value of fresh water hyacinth is 7.66% DCP and 43.73% TDN, with oxalic acid content ranging from 2.50% to 3.60%

1. F. produce inky taste.

2. Phenol produce bitter taste.

3. Anaebena produce strong grassy odour.

4. A protozoan dinobryon imparts fishy odour to the water.

5. Phosphorus compound produce wormy smell.

6. H,S produce rotten egg or putrid smell.

7. Humus produce earthy odour.

8. Sewage contain 99% of water & 1% solids.

9. Sewage contain 70% organic & 30% of inorganic in nature.

10. In sewage organic fraction contain 60% of protiens & 20% of carbo-hydrate &10% fat.

Introduction
The Kashmir Valley, located on the northern side of the Indian subcontinent, is renowned for its stunning aquatic habitats, integral to its biodiversity and cultural heritage. The state is endowed with natural water resources Exclusively Distributed by NIPA GENX Electronic Resources and Solution Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi encompassing a total water spread area of about 0.40 lakh hectares (Department of Fisheries, Government of Jammu and Kashmir). These resources exist in the form of fast-flowing cold-water streams, lakes, rivers, marshes, springs, and high-altitude lakes. These waters hold great potential for the development of various types of fisheries, including cold water fisheries, warm water fisheries, sport fisheries, and reservoir fisheries (Department of Fisheries, Government of Jammu and Kashmir). The data outlining the fishery resources of Jammu and Kashmir is presented in (Table 1). The state is blessed with the presence of significant rivers, namely the Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, and Ravi (Shukla and Ali, 2018). Indus originates from Lake Mansarovar at an elevation of 5100 meters in the Himalayas and flows diagonally toward the northwest (Ahmad and Rais, 1998). Jhelum, another important river, originates from a spring at Verinag, which lies northeast of Anantnag Town. The river flows through the city of Srinagar and the towns of Sumbal, Sopore, and Baramulla (Raina, 2002). The third major river in the state is the Chenab, which originates from the Himalayas. The lakes of the Kashmir Valley are surrounded by the majestic Himalayan Mountains (Romshoo et al., 2020). These lakes are invaluable natural water bodies housing a diverse gene pool. The valley boasts numerous lakes and wetlands at varying altitudes, categorized as high-altitude lakes (such as Gangabal, Vishan Sar, Kishan Sar, Sheesh Nag, Nilnag, Kauser Nag, etc.) and valley lakes (including Wullar, Dal, Manasbal, Aanchar, Ahansar, Hokersar, Haigam, etc.). The main factors contributing to the degradation of the lakes include indiscriminate cutting of surrounding vegetation, leading to increased silt and nutrient accumulation in the lake. Additionally, the disposal of sewage and domestic waste, along with the excessive use of pesticides and insecticides in the surrounding areas, and agricultural practices utilizing agrochemicals have been identified as significant contributors (Jamal et al., 2022; Kumar et al., 2022).

Introduction
The Trans-Himalayan region, often known as the Tibetan Plateau, is a vast region of Central Asia that is covered with high altitude topography. This enormous and untamed terrain, with its lofty peaks, wide plateaus, and profound valleys, is fundamental in determining the biodiversity and climatic patterns of the surrounding area. Geographically speaking, it includes portions of the Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR), Ladakh (India), and Tibet (China), among other places, making it a varied and culturally rich region. The Trans- Himalayan region, with an average height of 4,500 metres (14,800 feet), is sometimes referred to as the "Third Pole" because of its large ice fields and glaciers, which hold enormous amounts of freshwater that are essential for areas downstream. Major rivers like the Indus, Brahmaputra, and Yangtze, which supply water to millions of people in South and East Asia, are fed by these glaciers (Xu et al., 2009). The harsh climatic conditions in the area present special possibilities as well as problems for the local population and fauna. Extreme weather, such as low oxygen levels and frigid temperatures, have prompted the emergence of specialised plants and animals that are suited to these high-altitude environments. For example, the Tibetan Plateau is home to famous animals that flourish in its harsh environment, including the Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsonii) and the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) (Zhao and Guo, 2020). Furthermore, indigenous people have established traditional livelihood practices tailored to the severe circumstances of the Trans- Himalayan area, which carries considerable cultural and spiritual significance for them. These communities depend on the freshwater ecosystems and other natural resources of the area for agriculture, subsistence farming, and cultural activities (Immerzeel and Droogers, 2018).
Geography and Climate of the Trans-Himalayas
The Trans-Himalayan region is a large high-altitude territory situated north of the Greater Himalayas. It is also known as the Tibetan Plateau or the Roof of the World. At an average elevation of 4,500 metres above sea level, this plateau, which spans more than 2.5 million square kilometres, is among the tallest and biggest in the globe (Shi et al., 2019). This region is distinguished by its vast plains, mountain ranges like as the Kunlun, Karakoram, and Pamir, and a complicated network of mountains.

19.1 Introduction

Fish are the most common aquatic vertebrates. Fishes’ primary aquatic adaptation is the presence of gills. They use the oxygen that remains dissolved within the water via their gills. The gills use up to 80% of the oxygen dissolved in the water that passes over them. In addition to the gills, skin, the air bladder and accessory respiratory organs perform gas exchange functions in some fishes.

Fish gills are essentially the same. The gills have been specially modified to use up to 80% of the oxygen dissolved in the water that passes over them. Cyprinus and Carassius gills excrete six to ten times more nitrogenous waste than kidneys.

Introduction
The northernmost territory of the Republic of India, Jammu and Kashmir (latitude 32.28–37.06° and longitude 72.53–80.32°), is situated in the North Temperate Zone, characterized by its temperate-like conditions due to altitudinal variations (220 to 8611 m above mean sea level). The area is rich in biodiversity, with its mountainous terrain creating a beautiful aquatic landscape that is a key feature of its idyllic scenery. The aquatic resources over the valley primarily consist of high-altitude lakes, with wetlands and rivers following. These resources are more prevalent at higher altitudes, with decreasing occurrence at mid and lower altitudes. The freshwater bodies in the valley support a diverse array of macrophytes, phytoplankton, and zooplankton (Shah et al., 2020). Aquatic weeds, or hydrophytes, are found in water bodies worldwide, including those in India. Aquatic weeds are generally described as unwanted plants in the aquatic ecosystem. They occupy various ecological niches within these water bodies and play crucial roles in their ecosystems. India is home to numerous native vascular aquatic plants, as well as various non-native species. These aquatic plants include monocots, dicots, periphyton, and angiosperms. They serve as primary producers in the water bodies, contributing to oxygen production and offering nutritional and medicinal benefits. Despite their importance to the aquatic ecosystem, excessive growth of aquatic weeds can pose significant risks to aquatic organisms, particularly fish diversity in the affected areas.
The aquatic macrophytes of the Kashmir valley have been documented extensively by various authors over time, continuously updating the knowledge of the regional aquatic flora. Based on the recent finding of Ganie et al. (2020), the valley currently hosts 191 species of macrophytes, both aquatic and semiaquatic. These plants belong to 27 families and 80 genera, distributed across 22 dicotyledons, 12 monocotyledons, and 3 pteridophytes. Of these, 92 species are fully aquatic, including free-floating and submerged types, while 99 species are semiaquatic and emergent. In terms of diversity, the highest number of macrophyte species (160) has been reported from Kashmir, followed by 94 species in Jammu and 44 species in Ladakh. The distribution of aquatic weeds in the Kashmir valley includes prominent water bodies such as Dal Lake, Wular Lake, and Manasbal Lake. These lakes support a variety of macrophytes, contributing to the rich biodiversity of the valley. Dal Lake, for instance, is known for its extensive growth of Hydrilla verticillata and Potamogeton natans, while Wular Lake hosts species like Nymphaea alba and Trapa natans. The variety of aquatic plants in these water bodies is crucial for maintaining the ecological balance and health of the aquatic ecosystems of the valley. The diverse array of aquatic weeds in the waterbodies of the valley acts as a "double-edged sword" for the ecosystem. On one hand, these plants provide oxygen, maintain the nutrient cycle, and serve as food for some phytophagous fishes. On the other hand, their overabundance can create mosquito breeding grounds, absorb vital nutrients from the water, release toxic chemicals, and cause dead zones at night by consuming oxygen for respiration. Therefore, it is crucial to control and manage the population of aquatic weeds to ensure the wellbeing and sustainability of the aquatic ecosystem.

• Type of Aquatic weeds

• Different control method

• Advantage and disadvantage of Aquatic weeds.

Aquatic weeds are those unwanted and undesirable plants, which reproduce and grow in fast in water bodies. They are more harmful them beneficial for fish culture. Excessive growth of aquatic vegetation prevents effective utilisation of water and reduces productivity because they utilize the nutrients and also prevent the sunlight to read the deep part of the water body. This excessive growth restrict the living space of fishes, resulting into less production. The decay mass of these pollute weeds prevent the growth of more useful microorganisms. And disturb the food web and food chain and equilibrium of physico-chemical qualities of water. Liberation of toxic substance and waste decomposition of water body is most effective so it is necessary to identify and control them. It has the primary problem of management of Inland fishery cultures.

Aquatic plants grow on extremely wet soil and where water is available to plants in abundance such as ponds lanes river banks etc. or those plants which grows and found in the nearby water body or in water body. These plants are called as aquatic weeds because these are not attend the larger size and act as the weeds which is found in water so these are called as aquatic weeds.

A major portion of the earth’s surface is water. Apart from the oceans, major water bodies on the earth’s surface include rivers, streams, lakes, ponds and canals. Plants adapted to these ecosystems form the aquatic species. When they pose a problem to navigation, fisheries and agriculture and also cause health hazards, they are categorised as aquatic weeds. Problems due to aquatic weeds has been reported from different parts of the world. They are common in warm waters. In Florida, it is reported that water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) covers nearly 40,000 hectares of water resources.

Aquatic weeds are those unwanted plants which grow in water and complete at least a part of their life cycle in water. Aquatic weed problem is a global one but more pronounced in tropical and subtropical zones, where warm weather supports profuse growth of aquatic plants. In India, large irrigation projects have been reported to be adversely affected by profusely growing aquatic weeds, that block canals reducing water flow by as much as four-fifths. (Dr. K.T. Chandy,  2010).

1. Harmful Effects of Aquatic Weeds

The important harmful effects of aquatic weeds are as follows
 
    (i)    The aquatic weeds mainly Submerged, immersed, and marginal weeds in and along irrigation canals, ditches, and drainage channels impede water flow, increase evaporation, cause damage to canals and structures and clogs gates, siphons, valves, sprinkler heads, bridge piers, pumps, etc.

An aquifer is a geologic formation, a part of a formation, or a group of formations that will yield water. The quantity of ground water that an aquifer will yield to wells depends partly on its thickness, extent, continuity, and homogeneity, and partly on its physical properties of permeability and porosity.

Groundwater is stored in subsurface void spaces below the water table. The geologic material that stores, transmits, and yields groundwater to wells and springs are called aquifers. The key word here is yields. To be an aquifer, it must store and transmit water at rates fast enough to supply reasonable amounts to wells and springs. Therefore, not all groundwater is stored in an aquifer. Productive aquifers can be comprised of sand and gravel, sandstone, limestone and dolomite, or basalt flows, whereas fractured igneous or metamorphic rocks are only marginal aquifers.

The classifications of aquifer are given below:

A family of 140 genera and over 4,075 species, Araceae are distributed mostly in tropical and some also in temperate regions of the world. About 25 genera and over 140 species have been reported from India, chiefly from western and southern parts. Some larger genera along with the number of their worldover reported species are Anthurium (500), Philodendron (275), Arisaema (150), Amorphophallus (100), Rhaphidophora (100), Pothos (75), Alocasia (70), Monstera (50), Arum (15), Colocasia (8), Acorus (2) and Pistia (1). Colocasia (Colocasia antiquorum) and ‘money plant’ (Pothos aureus) are two famous plants of Araceae.
Anthurium is a beautiful group of tropical aroids. It is cultivated globally for its attractive flowers and foliage. The flowering stalks have a long vase life and add an ethnic beauty to any floral decoration. Anthurium also called as ‘Flamingo flower’ or ‘Boy flower’, both referring to the structure of the spathe, and spadix. ‘Anthra’ is a worldwide knowledge center for the cultivation of anthurium, based on Holland and Germany. ‘Anthura’ performs activities in the field of research and development breeding, tissue culture technology, training and publishing cultivation know- how. ‘Anthura’ collaborates with research stations and test locations in Thailand, China, USA, Japan and India.

Introduction
 
Biodiversity a term to describe variability between organisms or populations of organisms, has different facets depending on the level of diversity considered (Species, population, ecosystem) or the organisms concerned (Barbault, 1992). Biodiversity can be exploited in many ways at scientific levels, the best known and the most ancient no doubt being in taxonomy and systematics, and more recently for studies of population biology, evolution and conservation of ecosystems, or for selection of materials for biotechnology.

ABSTRACT

In Kerala, apart from cultivated sesame species (Sesamum indicum L.) three wild species were identified viz. Sesamum malabaricum, Sesamum mulayanum and Sesamum radiatum. An investigation was carried out to determine the intensity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal colonization in cultivated and wild species of sesame. The percentage of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal infection in roots of different sesame species were found to be variable. The highest percentage of root colonization of arbuscular mycorrhial fungi was found in wild species S. malabaricum, which promotes tolerance to the plant under drought stress conditions.

Introduction

The common mycorrhizal association in most of the plants is the arbuscular type occurring in the majority of agricultural and horticultural crops. Arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) are formed by non-septate Zygomycetous fungi belonging to the genera Glomus, Gigaspora, Acaulospora, Sclerocystis, Entrophospora, Scutellospora, Archaeospora and Paraglomus in the order Glomales. These fungi are obligate symbionts and have not been cultured on nutrient media. These endophytes are not host specific although evidence is growing that certain endophytes may form preferential association with certain host plants. Several investigations indicted that even in unsterile soils plants do respond to inoculation with efficient strains of arbuscular mycorrhizae. Numerous experiments have been conducted in different parts of the world confirming this growth improvement. The increased growth of mycorrhizal plants is favoured in soils with low to moderate fertility. More specifically, soils favouring mycorrhizal growth stimulation usually have one or more essential nutrients, especially phosphorus, in limiting concentrations.

The mechanism of improved plant growth caused by mycorrhizal inoculation has been investigated by many workers. Greater soil exploration by mycorrhizal roots as means of increasing phosphate uptake is well established. They also improved the uptake other diffusion-limited elements like Zn, Cu, etc. The other beneficial effects are their role in the biological control of root pathogens, biological nitrogen fixation, hormone production and greater ability to withstand water stress (Bagyaraj, 1984).

Abstract

Agroforestry is an intensive land use management system that integrates trees, shrubs, crops, etc. on a landscape level to achieve optimum benefits. Agroforestry is not only concerned with beneficial effects of one component on another, but it also involves the manipulations of negative effects to minimize their influence on the productivity of the overall system. In an agroforestry, trees and crops compete inevitably for light, nutrients, moisture and other resources. The interactions between tree and crop roots can also have an effect on soil organisms, which play an essential role in the functioning and productivity of agroforesty systems. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are one of the most important components of the soil biota in monoculture and agroforestry systems. AM fungi can rehabilitate degraded lands subjected to agroforestry systems and common mycorrhizal network may further enhance the benefits of agroforestry through vertical niche expansion of AMF. However, management practices of agroforestry affect mycorrhization, AMF community composition and diversity of AM fungi. This review focuses on AMF diversity, which plays a significant role in agroforestry systems.

Abstract

Contamination groundwater and soil due to heavy metals (HMs) has aggravated into a threat not only for people inhabiting the polluted areas but also for the vegetation of the region. Relying on the use of obligate symbionts, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in remediation of contaminated sites can be a productive approach. These fungi due to high cation exchange capacity have the ability to adsorb heavy metals (HMs) on fungal tissues; they also possess enzymes responsible for reduction of metals to less toxic forms. In areas with high toxicity of various HMs such as lead, AMF extends its extraradical mycelium (ERM) beyond the depletion zone of plant roots increasing the availability of nutrients such as potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, and sulphur resulting in increased plant growth and yield. Production of phenol and organic acids by the fungus have been reported to increase iron diffusion, that is a co-factor for antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase. AMF sequester HMs in fungal structures and bind them in their chitin cell walls preventing their translocation to aerial plant parts.

Abstract

Soil salinization is an important factor limiting crop production, mainly in the arid and semiarid regions of the world. Nevertheless, plants naturally have evolved several physiological, biochemical and molecular mechanisms to establish and thrive in salt stressed soils. In addition to breeding crops for salt tolerance, recent emphasis is on exploring the possible role of plant-microbe interactions in amelioration of salt stress in plants. It is now well established that arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis alleviates the effect of salt stress in plants. Further, available evidence does suggest that AM symbiosis regulates many of the plant’s salt stress alleviation mechanisms. However, the molecular basis for many of these mechanisms is yet to be ascertained. In this chapter, we summarize the current knowledge on the role of AM symbiosis in alleviation of salt stress in crop plants, which now appears to be a promising strategy to improve crop yield in salt stressed soils.

Abstract

Soil is the store house of 1/4^th of the global biodiversity. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi is one of the important group of organism occurring in soil. The beneficial effect of AM fungi in improving plant growth is well documented. Many of the functions performed by AM fungi can provide essential services to human society. These services include nutrient cycling, soil structure, plant growth promotion, resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses and bioregulation of plant development. These services are not only essential to ecosystem function but also a critical resource for the sustainable management of agricultural systems. Recent studies have brought out that both plant biodiversity and ecosystem productivity increases with the increasing number of AM fungi. Thus, it appears that the diversity of AM fungi in soil is a major factor contributing to the maintenance of plant biodiversity and the ecosystem functioning. The role of AM fungi in ecosystem services, plant diversity and land productivity are discussed in this review.