eChapters

Agroforestry systems essentially involve a perennial component and provide cover to the soil through litter fall and tree canopy, which contribute to the conservation of soil and water resources in arid and semi-arid areas. Moreover, arid and semi-arid areas are exposed to extensive soil erosion by wind and water, respectively.  Planting of trees on erosion control structures as windbreaks, boundary plantations and tree-based systems are some of the potential ways for conserving natural resources (Singh, 2003).  Agroforestry and soil conservation have major role to play in the context of global climate change likely to occur from extremes of weather events and erratic rainfall behaviour.
 
    •    Provide  permanent vegetative cover to the soil or land surface and thus substantially control erosion caused by both runoff and wind.

    •    Improve soil quality through increased soil organic matter addition from litter fall and root turnover; and  improved  environment for soil microbe and earthworm activity. 

Introduction

Agriculture expanded and forest dwindled. That eventually occurred with the expansion of civilization. Clearing of forests, granted in past, continued in modern times. Cutting of forests reached to such an alarming level that thinking of people turned back to create more forests. Sometimes over extraction of forest resources made forests unstable to yield perpetually according to necessity in future for which forests are turned unsupportive for livelihood and people tried for innovative means to enhance forest productivity in future (Nair 1993). Also with time agriculture faced the similar unfortunate condition towards intensive cultivation. So, peoples’ thinking turned back in agriculture how to make it stable and more supportive for livelihood year after year. Culturally human societies are connected both with agriculture and as well as forests from the time immemorial.

Introduction

Agroforestry is the intentional combination of agriculture and forestry technologies to create integrated, diverse, productive, profitable, and sustainable land-use systems (Rietveld 1995). It creates complex systems with impacts ranging from the site or practice level up to the landscape and beyond (Ellis, 2004). It is one of the most conspicuous land use systems that consists of annual and perennial plants, which are often integrated with livestock. It provides ecosystem services and reduces anthropological impacts on natural forests, arrests soil degradation, enhance soil fertility in many situations and improve farm resilience (Thangataa and Hildebrand 2012; Tewari et al. 2013). Agroforestry is a land management and farming system that are not only capable of fulfilling household needs but also maintaining and improving environmental quality. Itplays a vital role in achieving integrated rural and urban development. The changing climate has potential impacts on ecosystem goods and services by means of increased variability with greater risk of extreme weather events, such as prolonged drought, storms and floods (Lindner et al. 2010). Agroecosystem and forests are the ecosystems which are the most adversely affected by climate change by means of prevalence of pests, diseases, invasive species, species endangerment and high levels of food insecurity.

Introduction

Arid environs are delineated by extreme and harsh weather conditions due to excessive heat and inadequate, variable precipitation; however, contrasts in climate occur. These climatic disparities are the result of temperature variation, distribution and season of rainfall and the degree of aridity. Moreover, high evapo-transpiration, periodic droughts, low organic matter levels, different associations of vegetative cover and soil enhances the problems of these regions. In general, hot arid climates have excessive heat and strong prevailing winds, unhampered by obstacles on the ground and as result aeolian erosion is common with frequent seasonal drought occurrence (Sharma and Tewari 2005). These climatic limitations make very difficult place for the inhabitants to attain their livelihood. People of these areas have spent their life within these constraints for centuries. They have faced serious challenges due to lack of sufficient resources and very low productivity which has added to the vulnerability of the region. 

Abstract: The continouning decline in the availability of cultivable land, rising energy and land casts together with the mounting demand for fruits, fodder and timber have given thrust to the concept of agroforestry plantation in Madhya Pradesh. It is a very intensive form of cropping, which has high relevance to the food and nutritional security of our ever-increasing population. Modern cropping systems differ in many ways from the traditional systems. They require more capital to establish and must be more precocious and productive to be profitable. Agroforestry based land use development in Madhya Pradesh will claim sustainability, increased agricultural productivity besides fruit fuel-timber productivity and also helping small scale farmers by generating employment and income. Therefore, the utilization of wastelands has paramount importance and agroforestry is one of the landuse options.

In recent past, extreme weather events are causing great concern in different sectors contributing to Indian economy. India Meteorological Department is doing yeomen’s service by providing advance information including monitoring of the extreme events longs with proper advisories to the farming community by using state of art instruments & technology through efficient delivering mechanism of the information and ultimately help the farmers from incurring great loss. In many cases, the most severe impacts are felt when several extreme events occur together. The major extreme weather events related to agriculture are Tropical cyclones, floods, heavy rain and landslides, cold waves, fog, snow storms, Heat waves, Hailstorms, thunderstorms and dust storms, drought.

6.1 Introduction

One of the key challenges in the 21^st century is that Agromet Advisory Services (AAS) have to respond to an unpredictable and changing climate. In India Gramin Krishi Mausam Sewa (GKMS) is the umbrella project for Agromet Advisory Services (AAS) and it intends to link AAS to different sources of knowledge and innovations to respond to the climate change at root level farmers. The main aim of GKMS is to create effective, efficient and synergistic linkages to improve the delivery of these AAS to the farmers. GKMS works under the frame work of India Meteorological Department (IMD) which seeks to enhance the livelihood of every Indian farmer. 

The District-wise weekly agroadvisory service based on medium range weather forecasting (3 to 10 days) has been made operational by the State Agricultural Universities in collaboration with National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF), India Meteorological Department. The Agroadvisory Bulletin (AAB) contains three parts. The first part of AAB consists of weather events occurred during the past week and weather forecast for three days ahead. These forecasts provide expected weather on cloud amount, rainfall, average wind speed, wind direction, maximum and minimum temperatures and cumulative rainfall. The second part contains the factual information on the varieties of crops, their state and stage, ongoing agricultural operations and occurrence of insect pest and diseases of crops.

Objectives
    
·    Creation and use of large databases of Biological information to augment traditional laboratory based biology.
    
·    Analysis and interpretation of genomic and structural data using computational techniques from Mathematics, Statistics and Computer Science.
    
·    Explain the process and mechanism of evolution by comparing the Genomes of different species.
    
·    Development of new methods and technologies for understanding and diagnosis of genetic diseases and design of drugs for their treatment.

Biological sequences like the nucleotide and amino acid sequences can be analyzed by means of the sequence alignment. The objective behind this is to obtain knowledge regarding the similarity between the query and the target sequence to decipher the structure, function, homology of the query sequence.

Abstract: Alley cropping system is known for several services like fodder and fuel production, nutrient management, and soil erosion control from hilly terrain in humid tropics, but it could not make in farmers field. This study explores the role of Gliricidia leaf manure on nitrogen management in soils. Simultaneously, the system is modified to make it highly profitable, so that it may become farmer’s friendly in humid tropics. For nitrogen management in soil, two methods (leaves being incorporated into soil vs. surface) and three times of application, i.e. zero week after sowing (0 WAS), two week after sowing (2 WAS) and four week after sowing (4 WAS), of Gliricidia leaf in soil was considered. Two additional treatments, urea (120 kg ha-1, equal to the leaves) and control (no urea + no leaves) are also maintained to compute recovery of nitrogen from the leaves by the crop, and to know if the leaf manure could produce grain yield equal to that of equivalent urea. The study reveals there is no effect of the method of application on the decomposition and release of nitrogen from the leaves, soil N mineralization, nitrogen uptake, shoot biomass and yield of the crop, but time of application affects these parameters significantly. Maximum 50 % nitrogen is released quickly from the leaves within 15 days and remaining 48-49 % gradually in 60 days. Rate of soil N mineralization; nitrogen uptake, shoot biomass and grain yield in maize are the highest in 2 WAS and lowest in 4 WAS treatment. Recovery of nitrogen from the leaves is very low ranging from 4.5 to 9.3 kg ha-1. The leaves do not produce yield in maize equal to that of equivalent urea. However, for synchronization of maximum release of N from Gliricidia leaves and it’s 

INTRODUCTION

The cultivated almond (Prunus dulcis (Miller). D.A. Webb; Syn. Prunus amygdalus L. Batsch.) known as “Badam” in hindi is an important stone fruit tree species producing highly nourishing nuts of great medicinal value, called as almond. Badam Pappu (Telugu), Badam Paruppu (Tamil), Baadami (Kannada), Badam kayu (Malayalam) are other local names for almond in India. Surprisingly, the almond is not a true nut member, but rather is actually a family member of stone fruits such as nectarines, peaches, plums and cherries. For this reason, some people refer to an almond as a fruit. It is a medium sized deciduous tree belonging to Rosaceae family which produces edible seeds in hard outer shell and is cultivated mainly between latitudes 36o and 45o N. The almond is the most favoured nut with Indians and is very much relished by people. Spain , USA, Itlay, China, Iran, Greece, Tunisia, Turkey, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Algeria, Morroco, France, Persia and Syria are the important almond growing countries. In India it is mainly cultivated in the Kashmir valley and some parts of Himachal Pradesh.

Introduction

The green revolution in mid-sixties stirred by research based new technological developments involving new materials, models and ways of organizing farm inputs (water, fertilizer, chemical etc) and government’s policies transformed the agriculture dramatically. The outcome chewed a many fold increase in production and productivity viz. food grain production of 211 million tonnes (which was only 74.23 million tonnes in 1966-67) and food grain productivity of 1697 kg ha-1 (which was only 644 kg ha-1 in 1966-67). The country thus became self-sufficient in food production despite tremendous pressure to sustain 16% of world human population and 10% of cattle population with just 2.4% of total land.

The analysis of chromosome behaviour at meiosis can provide valuable information about the genomic composition of both species and hybrids. The basis for this analysis is the idea that chromosomes that pair and undergo chiasma formation are homologous. Where two genomes are present, as in diploids, the expectation is that only bivalents will be observed and where there are multiple genomes, as in polyploids, two general patterns of pairing are possible. In autopolyploids, configurations of multiple chromosomes are to be expected since all the component genomes are homologous and have the possibility of pairing with each other, whereas in allopolyploids, with different genomes, bivalent formation is the expectation. Thus, meiotic analysis can provide an oversight for genome analysis to investigate genetic relationships between the species. Further, chromosomal rearrangements are correlated with pollen fertility in species and F₁ hybrids.  Observations on pollen formation, size and viability can provide useful information, as low pollen viability is often indicative of meiotic irregularities and large sized pollen can indicate the formation of unreduced gametes. In addition, the occurrence of nucleolar dominance has been recorded in many interspecific hybrids.

Computation has become an essential tool in life science research. This is exemplified in genomics, where first microarrays and now massively parallel DNA sequencing have enabled a variety of genome-wide functional assays that require increasingly complex analysis tools. The problem of accessibility of computational tools has long been recognized. Without programming or informatics expertise, scientists needing to use computational approaches are impeded by problems ranging from tool installation; to determining which parameter values to use; to efficiently combining multiple tools together in an analysis chain. The severity of these problems is evidenced by the numerous solutions to address them. Kowledge on software  and web-based interfaces for tools all improve the accessibility of computation. These approaches each have advantages, but do not offer a general solution that enables a computational tool to be easily included in an analysis chain and run by scientists without programming experience.However, making tools accessible does not necessarily address the crucial problem of reproducibility.

Q.1.    In what sense the analysis of covariance is an extension of ANOVA ?

    Answer
    
    The analysis of covariance is an extension of ANOVA in the sense that it covers the case where observations are taken on more than one variable from each experimental unit. The interest centers on the study variable y which depends upon on auxillary variable x.

Two schemes of labeling are in common use today. One variant labels a single sample, either radioactively or fluorescently. Radioactive labeling is used, e.g., in conjunction with hybridization on nylon membranes (Lennon and Lehrach, 1991). The company Affymetrix synthesizes sets of short oligomers on a glass wafer and uses a single fluorescent label (Lipshutz et al., 1999). Alternatively, two samples are labeled with a green and a red fluorescent dye, respectively. The mixture of the two mRNA preparations is then hybridized simultaneously to a common array on a glass slide. This technology is usually referred to as the Stanford technology (David Duggan et al., 1999). Quantification utilizes a laser scanner that determines the intensities of each of the two labels over the entire array. Recently, companies like Agilent have immobilized long oligomers of 60 to 70 base pairs length and used two-color labeling.

The male genital system consists of:

1. The pair gonads, the testes
2. Epididymis
3. Vas deference or ductus deference
4. Accessory glands (Seminal vesicles, prostate glands, & bulbo-urethral glands)

1.     Tissue Collection and Culture
    
2.     Trypsinization of Cells
    
3.     Cell Separation by Density Gradient Method
    
4.     Low Speed Separation of Cells
    
5.     Isolation of Lymphocyte
    
6.     Cryo Preservation
    
7.     Isolation of Spleen Cells
    
8.     Isolation of Peritoneal Macrophage
    
9.     Isolation of Blood Dna
    
10.     Differential Count of Leucocytes
    
11.     Slide Gel Electrophoresis
    
12.     Haemagglutination Assay
    
13.     Elisa
    
14.     Western Blotting
    
15.     Widal Test
    
16.     Identification of Y-chromosomes in Cattle using Pcr

Analysis of Variance
    
Completely Randomised Design (C.R.D.)
    
Randomised Block Design (R. B. D.)
    
Latin Square Design

INTRODUCTION

Aonla or Indian gooseberry (Emblica officinalis Gaertn.) is an important indigenous minor fruit grown in tropical and subtropical regions of India. It is known with many vernacular names such as amla, aura, amlaki, nelli, amolphal, amlakamu, amlet, amlay. Aonla, cultivation is highly remunerative due to its high productivity even on marginal lands. The plant is quite hardy, heavy bearer giving better income to the farmers. It can be grown successfully in marginal soil and various kinds of wasteland conditions such as sodic and saline soils, ravines, dry and semi dry regions.

1.    Groups of Apomixis
    
2.    Recurrent Apomixis
    
3.    Non-recurrent Apomixis
    
4.    Vegetative Apomixis
    
5.    Genetic Control of Apomixis
    
6.    Mechanism of Apomixis
    
7.    Ovule, Seed and Fruit Development in Sexual Plants
    
8.    Double Fertilization and Control of Embryo Initiation
    
9.    Sequential Events in Apomictic Pathway
    
10.    Gametophytic Apomixis
    
11.    Significance and Scope of Apomixis in Crop Plants
        
References

Appendix A: Diagrammatic Presentation of Processes Involved in Obtaining an Indian Patent

INTRODUCTION

The apple ( Malus x domestica Borkh.) is an important temperate fruit, grown in areas experiencing cold winters, frost free springs and mild summer. The genus Malus has 25 species. Apple is considered best premier table fruit of the world. The commercially grown cultivars of apple are sweet, juicy and have a pleasing grainy texture. Apple is the most important crop or cash crop of hilly states and occupy 49 per cent of the total area under fruit crop.

Nutritive and Cultural Significance

Apple fruit is in rich source of proteins, minerals, potassium, thiamine, vitamin B6 and carbohydrates. Apple fruits contains sugars (sucrose, glucose, fructose), dextrins, starch, hemicellulose, cellulose and pectin substances. Maleic acid is the major acid of apple fruits. The fruit contain Carbohydrates 14.5 per cent, protein 0.3 per cent, potassium 110 mg, phosphorus 10 mg, iron 0.12 mg and calcium 6 mg per 100 g of fruit. Among the vitamins, it contain vitamin C 10-40 mg, vitamin A 90-120 1U, thiamine (B1) 0.017 mg, Riboflavin 0.026 mg per 100g of fruit. Apple fruit contains 86 per cent water content.

Abstract

Accurate forecasting of the rice yields is very important for the organization to make a better planning and decision making. The aim of the study is to investigate the ability of neural network for yield prediction of rice in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Field experiments were conducted at the various regions of Andaman and Nicobar Islands during 1980 to 2002 and data collected was subjected to Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) approach for developing a meaningful yield prediction for four varieties of rice C14-8, Quing Livan No.1, Taichung , Sen Yu, Jaya under island conditions with the objective to estimate the crop production a few days or months before harvesting of crop. The observations of all experiments viz., Varietal spectrum, Weather parameters , Yield components, Soil, Abiotic stressors, Biotic stressors for the period of twenty years from 1980 to 2002 were collected from the basic records of experimental field. All the data were used for training data set. Prediction of crop yield, mainly strategic plant of rice has been an interesting research area to agronomists since long for its importance in national and international economic programming. Application of ANN was found to be significant tool for prediction of yield in rice.

Bioinformatics is the application of information technology to the field of molecular biology. The term Bioinformatics was coined by Paulien Hogewag, in 1978 for the study of informatic processes in biotic systems. Bioinformatics nowadays, entails the creation and advancement of databases, algorithms, computational and statistical techniques, and theory to solve formal and practical problems arising from the management and analysis of biological data. Bioinformatics deals with storing and searching of large biological data sets and analysis of these data sets using computers to determine various relationships. 
The rapid developments in genomic and other molecular research technologies and developments in information technologies have been combined to produce tremendous amount of information related to molecular biologists. Now bioinformatics has developed and deals with many other types of biological data like protein structures, sequence alignment, gene finding, genome assembly, gene expression profiles, structure alignment, protein structure prediction, protein–protein interactions and the modelling of evolution. Being an interface between modern biology and informatics, it involves detection, expansion and implementation of computational algorithms and some of the software tools used to provide applications primarily in agriculture and healthcare divisions. In developing countries, bioinformatics play a major role in agricultural area where it can be used for increasing the nutritional content, and increasing the volume of the agricultural products etc.

Introduction

Conventional practises of raising livestock had been practised for several years on a worldwide basis to satisfy the protein needs. Increasing human population, income growth and increase of urbanization, pressurizes serious demand on the quantity and attribute of livestock products. The feed stuffs such as maize, soya, groundnut, etc. used in livestock especially for poultry possesses a great competition for human food.

1. Introduction

The emergence of food borne illness due to contaminated food is one of the most frequently occurring event and challenge for the food processing industry. This has resulted into economy as well as energy requirement to counter the food borne pathogens. Some of the important pathogenic microorganisms of concern are E. coli, Listeria monocytogenes, salmonella, etc. To address the food safety and quality issues, several non-thermal food processing technologies have been developed in the last decades, with an aim of achieving food safety without significantly affecting the quality of the food product. Cold plasma in one of the non-thermal processing technology, which has shown promising results as evidenced by recent scientific investigations.

The plasma is known as fourth state of matter after solid, liquid and gas state. Plasma contains diversity of energetic species including ions, electrons, atoms, excited molecules and charged particles. In a plasma, a significant number of electrons have such a high energy that no nucleus can hold them. When a gas is subjected to heat or an electric field, some of the atoms become ions and the gas is said to be ionized. An ionized gas in its normal condition, can conduct electric current to a limited extent. If the heat or electric current becomes extreme, many of the atoms become ions. The resulting super ionized gas, which can conduct a large and sustained electric charge. Plasmas are used in several materials processing industries like textiles, electronics, paper and glass industries etc.

Introduction 
Plant disease has been highly impacted by the development of new technology. The degree of the impact depends on how much the technology affects the component steps of the system. Many of the steps in plant disease diagnosis and management depend heavily on accurate and timely information and so can greatly benefit from the development of improved methods of accessing and disseminating information. Computers provide a wide range of tools which are extensively used in plant disease diagnosis and management. In fact, they will be a key to improve farm practices in the coming decades as it is scientifically pertinent to organize farm information in spatial databases because agricultural systems are inherently spatial. Biological and physical aspects of agricultural system create spatial heterogeneity, and as a result, patchiness is the rule in the occurrence and distribution of plant pathogens and disease (Campbell and Madden, 1990). In the area of plant diseases computers are useful

Biotechnology in the food processing sector targets the selection and improvement of microorganisms, including bacteria, yeasts and moulds with the objectives of improving process control, yields and efficiency as well as the quality, safety and consistency of bioprocessed products. They perform a series of processes such as fermentation, hydrolysis, etc. and even spoilage of food, depending upon the species of organisms, nature of raw material (food), environmental factors (temperature, pH, salt concentration, etc.), duration, etc.

Fermentation
Is the process of bioconversion of organic substances by microorganisms and/or enzymes (complex proteins) of microbial, plant or animal origin. It is one of the oldest forms of food preservation which is applied globally.

ABSTRACT
Increased environmental pollution and high demand over supply for conventional fossil fuel sources have led to the exploration of other renewable energy sources. Out of the potential alternatives, methane has come up with a promising unconventional fuel source. Several technologies have been developed to establish methanation, including biomethanation, chemical methanation and gas-to-liquid technology. Several factors like process parameters, catalysts and reactors have been studied for process optimisation and making methane production commercially viable. Although methane as a greenhouse gas is a contributor to global warming, its combustion produces relatively ‘environment friendly’ gas CO₂, and H₂O. The released CO₂ is fixed into biomass by plant through photosynthesis process. Only rarely does methane combustion produces CO when combusted in an oxygen-limited condition. Thus, methane production and combustion are carbon neutral process. This chapter focuses on the application of methane as a source of alternate energy. Various technologies used, recent advances and challenges faced in methanation process are discussed.

Abstract

The term nano technology, buzzword of present day science owes its origin from the Greek word ‘nano’ literally meaning dwarf. It is expressed in terms of dimension one nanometer equals to one billionth of a meter (1nm=10-9m), work on the principle of particle movement, smallest particle accelerate fast in the system. The nano technology deals with manufacturing, study and manipulation of matter at nano-scale (or atomic scale) in the size range of  1-100 nm, called as nanoparticles (Rajan, 2004). Nano technology is one of the most fascinating and rapidly possessing potential to revolutionize in science and technology of medicine and agriculture. In plant pathology, nano technology has potential scope to detection, diagnosis and management of plant diseases. Micromechanical cantilever arrays for selective immobilization and fast quantitative detection of vital fungal spores (Nugaeva et al., 2005). Micro-fabricated chambers designed to mimic some of the features of xylem vessels and discovered that Xylella fastidiosa migrates via type IV pilus-mediated twitching motility (Meg et al., 2005). Antifungal properties of chitosan, chitosan-saponin and Cu-chitosan nanoparticle reveal against phytopatogenic fungi namely Alternaria alternate, Macrophomina phaseolina and Rhizoctonia solani (Sharan et al. 2013). 

1. Introduction

Biopolymers nowadays are grabbing a nice place in packaging industries replacing synthetic polymers. The most important advantage of biopolymer over synthetic polymers is that they are biodegradable and can be developed from agricultural or food processing wastes. Among the wide variety of materials currently used in food packaging, polymers have taken a major share because of their versatility and advantageous performance (Valdés et al., 2014). However, most polymers used for food packaging are not biodegradable or compostable and therefore represent an increasingly serious end-of-life disposal problem worldwide. Although food package stability during the shelf-life of the product is an advantage, it turns into a disadvantage when the packages enter the post-use phase.

ANN is a Mathematical model or Computational model based on biological neural networks. It consists of an interconnected group of artificial neurons and processes information using a connectionist approach to computation. Neural Networks are non-linear statistical data modeling tools. That can be used to model complex relationships between inputs and outputs or to find patterns in data.

Bioinformatics is a discipline that deals with computation of biological information. Bioinformatics is a newly emerging interdisciplinary research area spanning a range of specialties that include biology, biophysics, computer science, mathematics & statistics. It makes use of scientific and technological advances in the area of computer science, information technology and communication technology to solve complex problems in life sciences particularly problem in Biotechnology.

Explosive growth in biological data from large sequencing projects that are producing nucleotide sequences continuously at a faster rate and the content of the nucleotide database is doubling in every 14 months. The latest release of Gene bank (v.102) exceeded one billion base pairs. To cope with this huge volume of data, a new scientific discipline has emerged comprising bioinformatics, biocomputing & computational biology.

Introduction

After the advent of Post Genomic era, Biological data is accumulating at an electrifying pace every day. Storage and analysis of these data serve as a major source for scientific research to understand the phenomena of origin, evolution and existence of various forms of life. The management of these data requires different statistical techniques used for retrieval, storage, analysis and extraction of precise information from small as well as large biological datasets. Application of statistical tools in Bioinformatics especially in fisheries data has been reported (Roy and Martha, 2008).

Abstract

The protein classification prediction is an important Problem in molecular biology, and one that has attracted a lot of attention, because there is a gap between sequence and structure of proteins from various resources. The proteins can be usually classified into one of the four structural classes; they are all-a, all-b, a/b and a+b. To address the problem of protein classification, many different algorithms and efforts have been made so far. In this paper, a new rule based data mining method for the prediction of protein structural classes is constructed using Rough Sets algorithm. Rough Sets Theory (RST) is a new mathematical approach to study the realistic information (Z. Pawlak, 1982). It focuses on knowledge reasoning by the whole set directly approximating to the incomplete and uncertain information. There are studies on the knowledge reduction and features selection of mass data. To apply rough sets algorithm, a decision table is constructed using Amino acid compositions and eight physicochemical properties data as conditional attributes. The generated decision rules after reducing the decision system can be used to classify new objects.The classification results of Rough Sets is verified by using self-consistency and jackknife tests on the datasets constructed by G.P. Zhou and comparison is made with some of the previous works.

A large number of insect pests are associated with stored grains which are directly related to geographical and climatic conditions. There are different estimates on post harvest losses in food. During storage both quantitative and qualitative losses occur due to insects, rodents, and microorganisms. Almost all the insect species may destroy 10.0 - 15.0 % of grain and contaminate with undesirable odour. These pests also helps in transportation of fungi. Some insect pests initiate damage at the ripening stage of crops and continue during storage. Major sources of infestations are old gunny bags, storage structure and old containers (Pruthi and Singh, 1950). The spread and distribution of stored product pests are facilitated by movement of grains from one area to another and by flight of insect pests as some of the adult insects are strong fliers. The cracks and crevices are probable sites for cross infestation. Nearly one thousand species of insects have been associated with stored products in different part of the world. Majority of insect pests belong to the orders Coleoptera and Lepidoptera (Khare, 1994).

INTRODUCTION

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.), belongs to the family Rosaceae and is one of the most important fruit crop of mid hills and dry temperate regions of India. It was introduced in India by the European settlers and Missionaries in the late 19th century. Cultivated apricot has its origin in North-Eastern China, whereas wild apricot, popularly known as zardalu, appears to be indigenous to India. It grows wild in hills of Shimla and Kinnaur districts of Himachal Pradesh. Fruit is delicious, rich in vitamin A and contains more carbohydrates, proteins, phosphorous and niacin than many other common fruits. Besides its use as dessert, it is also canned and dried. Fruit is processed into jam, nectar and squash. The kernels are either sweet or bitter, depending upon the variety. The sweet kernels are used as a cheap substitute for almonds in pastries and confectionery. The bitter kernels are used for oil extraction. In India, apricot is grown commercially in the hills of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh and to a limited extent in north eastern hills. Some drying type apricots are being grown in the dry temperate areas of Kinnaur and Lahaul Spiti in Himachal Pradesh and Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir.

In recent years, a new branch of biological science, called as bio-informatics receives more attention among its users and calls for application of computational statistical algorithms to a greater extent and needs employment of more sophisticated mathematical/statistical tools. Though biological science and information technology forms a major part in bio-informatics research as applied to agriculture, statistical tools act as their backbone. Its utility is more felt starting from the stage of framing of hypothesis till analyzing/interpreting results of a scientific experiment.  It can also be viewed as a three way multi-disciplinary approach with biotechnology, information technology and statistical technology as its three faces, with the principles of statistics applied to biological science through an interface information technology.

5.1. INTRODUCTION
     
Rice is an important provider of nourishment for the world’s population. Indian scented rice, ‘Basmati’ has dominated the domestic and international market for aroma. Aromatic rice is an important commodity worldwide and command premium price over non-scented varieties. Most of the trade in aromatic rice is from India, Pakistan and Thailand. Bulk of aromatic rice from India and Pakistan consist of Basmati, while Thailand is the supplier of Jasmine rice. The Indian subcontinent has the Natural Gift of basmati rice that has been accepted as the best scented, long and slender grain in the world markets and gets high price. In addition to Basmati, many local landraces are grown traditionally, which excel in aroma, grain quality and cooking quality. Most of these genotypes are short bold to medium bold grain and hence not traded in the international market. However, in the domestic market its demand is greater than the Basmati rice. These are mainly used for special preparation, such as Khir in Bengal.

The goats play a vital role in the economy of the poor and marginal farmers of rural India. Notwithstanding the fact that the goat population has shown a steady growth over the year’s very little effort has been taken for genetic improvement at farm level. As per 20th Livestock Census, 27.74% of the livestock population is Goats. Out of 148.88 million Indigenous Goats (Including Non-descript), 27.4% are pure breed, 9.1% are graded breeds and the remaining 63.5% are non-descript breeds. So, to increase the productivity per goat, we need to improve the breed quality scientifically. Artificial insemination (AI) using frozen semen is practiced to produce superior progeny and to accelerate the up gradation of stock. The conception rate with AI is lower but it has great potential to multiply superior quality of goat with faster rate. This technique also spread elite genetic material throughout a population with increased rate of genetic improvement. This technique is also important for the breed conservation process and has paved the way for other reproductive biotechnologies. The sufficient elite germplasm of male buck is not available throughout the country to cover breeding programmed by natural mating. AI is the best solution to improve the quality and productivity per goat.

The selection of breeding bucks in relation to maximizing the reproductive efficiency depends upon males. AI permits intense selection of sires with exceptional merits and provides opportunity to exploit the value of superior sires. Young males can be trained for exhibiting sexual behaviors and semen collection through the uses of male, anoestrus doe or oestrus doe as dummy. Successful AI depends on precise management of semen collection, its frequency and use. The semen collection implies mounting a teaser doe or a dummy. Artificial vagina (AV) and electro-ejaculator (EE) are the two methods for semen collection in bucks. AV method is being used as universal method for routine semen collection whereas electro-ejaculation is generally used for collecting semen from untrained and valuable sires incapable of service. Moreover, this method of collection is painful for the animals. Semen evaluation should be rapid and effective so that collected semen samples can be processed for initial quality which ultimately affects the fertility. There are several tests for the assessment of semen quality but no single test is reliable to give definite prediction of the fertility.

• What is Intelligence?
• What is Artificial Intelligence?
• Branches of AI
• Natural–Language
• Natural Language Processing 
• Natural Language Recognition
• Simple Natural Language Grammar
• Intelligent Technologies in Agriculture
• Intelligent Animal Houses
• Agricultural Robots

• What is a Neural Network?
• How does an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) work?
• Characteristics of Neural Networks 
• Architectures of Artificial Neural Networks
• Learning Process
• Classification of Learning Algorithms
• Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture -Intelligent Agent 
• Classes of Intelligent Agents
• Characteristic of Intelligent Agents

Introduction

Modern agriculture has been of great help in alleviating hunger from the world, because the world population more than doubled itself during the last half of the 20th century; it increased from 2.5 billion in AD 1950 to 7.1 billion in 2012 (USCB, 2013). It is predicted that the world population will again double itself by the end of the 21st century and will touch the 12 billion mark. Most of this increase in population has been, and will be, in the developing countries in Asia, Africa and South America. India occupies 2.4 percent of the total land area of the world, but supports 16.7 per cent of the world population. Like many other developing countries in the world, population in India is increased from 345 million in 1947 to 1210 million as per the 2011 census with a growth rate of 1.76 during last decade. Therefore, pressure on land has been mounting up at an alarming rate. Population growth coupled with live stock population expansion, urbanization and industrialization are major contributory factors to it. The unscientific and unplanned exploitation of this limited resource takes its toll in terms of degrading the land. A large proportion of the land area shows clear evidence of advanced and continuing degradation seriously affecting the country’s productive resource base (Abrol and Sehgal, 1994). Jammu & Kashmir and  Nagaland  have maximum share of their land (94%) under degradation. This is primarily due to large areas under mountains, cold deserts and other such degraded lands. In the agriculturally prominent states like Uttar Pradesh (63%), Madhya Pradesh (50%) and Karnataka (46%) (Shalander Kumar, 2011) the extent of land degradation is of great concern and posing a big threat to the natural resources, resulting in almost 5 billion tonnes soil and 6 million tones of nutrient loss every year (Singh, 2009).

Introduction

Road traffic in cold snowy regions during winter season faces problems, like icing of road, snow compaction and snow storms that obstruct visibility. In snowy region there is also danger of damage due to snow avalanches. Avalanches often severely damage road service facilities or road structures. Quick response and corrective actions are required to cope with the damages, if any avalanche occurs.

Influenza a Pandemics

15.1    Banana Chips/Crisps
    
15.2    Banana Puree/Pulp
    
15.3    Banana Flour
    
15.4    Banana Powder
    
15.5    Banana Flakes
    
15.6    Banana Figs or Dehydrated Banana
    
15.7    Banana Jam
    
15.8    Ready-To-Serve (Rts) Beverage
    
15.9    Banana Beer and Wine
    
15.10    Banana Vinegar
    
15.11    Banana Catsup
    
15.12    Banana Inflorescence Relish
    
15.13    Candied Banana
    
15.14    Other Banana Based Products