eChapters

Abstract

Agricultural production is often limited by low phosphorus (P) availability. In developing countries, which have limited access to P fertiliser, there is a need to develop plants that are more efficient at low soil P. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbioses are widespread in the plant kingdom and contribute significantly to plant P nutrition and growth in natural ecosystems. Production and application of these beneficial fungi for agricultural purposes has grown over the last decades worldwide. However, the necessity of AM inoculum production via a host plant is still an obstacle to ample utilization of AM fungi in agricultural crops. The present article deals with the basic and applied aspects of AM research and its role in sustainable agriculture.

6.1 Introduction
One of the various fusion welding techniques used to combine metals is arc welding. It melts and joins metals by producing a high temperature using an electric arc. An electric arc is created between a base metal and a consumable or non-consumable electrodede by a power source. The types of arc welding methods are listed below.
i. Gas shield tungsten arc welding
ii. Metal arc welding
iii. Submerged arc welding
iv. Gas shield metal arc welding
v. Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
vi. Electrode-Slag Welding (ESW)
vii. Electrode-Gas Welding (EGW)
viii. Arc Stud Welding (SW)
ix. Carbon Arc Welding (CAW)
x. Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW)
6.2 Gas Shield Tungstan arc Welding
An electric arc formed between a tungsten electrodede and the metal that needs to be joined starts the welding process. The arc melts the metal while protecting the weld from airborne impurities with a cloud of argon, helium gas, or carbon dioxide. A separate filler rod can be used to add additional filler metal. An inert gas, such as argon or helium, surrounds a non-consumable tungsten electrodede during the arc welding method known as tungsten inert gas welding (TIG). If more weld metal is needed, an additional filler rod can supply it. To prevent overheating and excessive erosion of the tungsten electrodede, a direct current is employed with the electrodede negatively charged.

The genus Arcanobacterium was first described to include the bacteria originally isolated as Corynebacterium haemolyticum from American wounded soldiers (Collins et al., 1982). The bacteria had different cell wall and lipid composition in comparison to the other members of the genus Corynebacterium. So the new genus Arcanobacterium was created.

Properties of genus

1.         Morphology : Arcanobacterium pyogenes is a Gram positive, non-motile, non- spore forming, short, rod-shaped bacterium, measuring 0.5µm by 2 µm. They are non-capsulated and do not contain any metachromatic granule. Initially (during first 18 hour of growth) the bacterial cells may show characteristic ‘V’-arrangement like Corynebacterium, latter as the growth proceeds, the organisms become granular and segmented so that they resemble small and irregular cocci (whereas, A. hippocoleae and A. pluranimalium appear to be less coccoid). The cell wall is devoid of mycolic acid, arabinogalactan unlike ‘coryneform’ bacterial group (Mycobacterium, Corynebacterium, Rhodococcus, Nocardia). Cell wall peptidoglycan is composed of N-acetyl muramic acid, lysine. Being gram positive in nature, some strains exceptionally possess fimbriae.

1. INTRODUCTION

Landscaping is a branch of ornamental horticulture having aesthetic and beautifying value which freshens up the atmosphere, enhances the look of the environment and improves beauty of land. In the area of landscaping, it is beneficial to know about ground covers (grasses etc), hedging plants, and focus plants that will complement one another.

A garden by definition is a piece of land devoted to growing flowers, fruits, vegetables, shrubbery and turf. Gardens brighten their surroundings and they add to the beauty of the landscape. The types of flowers that can be grown in a garden depend on the size of the garden, its location and the amount of sunshine and shade it gets.

Abstract

The paper discusses patentability aspect of subject matter. Patentable subject matter must satisfy three basic criteria i.e. novelty, inventiveness and industrial applicability, though few subject matter satisfying all the three basic criteria stated above may still be not patentable in specific jurisdiction based on certain circumstances or as stated in the patent act of the specified jurisdiction. Therefore grant of a patent is subject to certain limitations mentioned in the section 3 and 4 of the Indian Patent Act for Indian jurisdiction. The aim of this paper is to study such limitations in detail.

Introduction

Global economies have witnessed very deepened financial integration in past decade and have more room for leverage. However, these integrations have also witnessed various turmoil in the economy in the form of Russian- Brazil debt crisis, Asian financial crisis, Dot com bubble, Argentina debt crisis, Global financial crisis and many more since 1990s. Due to the existence of globalization, these crises have impacted not only a particular economy but has extended its scope.

The previous studies have found the credit growth and asset prices as a leading indicator. Some studies also showed that the foreign exchange reserve, broad money supply and trade as variables were also statistically significant. These studies have used either the Signal Extraction Approach used by Kaminsky and Reinhart (1999) which used a threshold value as a limit for multiple variables beyond which a crisis signal is given. Bucharest Stock Exchange (BSE)in Romania (Brezinski and Stephen, 2011) lost its attractiveness among foreign investors. However, there are not enough resources which focuses on Asian economies or India. The emergence of novel technologies, including artificial intelligence (AI), blockchain, cloud computing, big data analytics, machine learning (ML), internet of things (IoT), and 3-D printing, commonly known as Industrial Revolution 4.0 (IR4.0), offers developing nations like India both significant opportunities and challenges. IR4.0 technologies, sometimes referred to as the “digital revolution,” have numerous uses in the industries of services, industry, and agriculture.

The area of circle, rectangular, square, triangle, trapezium, rhombus,parallelogram etc are to be calculated by simple formulae but some times the combined area of more than two either circles or trapezium is difficult to calculate. It needs to understand the concept of area and how it is related to different planes. Some of the tips are given below to understand how to calculate the are

a. Area

A part of the plane enclosed by a simple closed figure is called a plane region and the measurement of plane region enclosed is called its area. Area is measured in square units.

The different geometrical shapes formula of area and perimeter with examples are discussed below:

Introduction

Soil is a very precious natural resource. It is considered as the epicentre of all the life forms on earth. One cm of soil takes about 1000 years to form but if not used sustainably and managed properly, it may degrade and get converted into a wasteland in just few countable years. The heavy population load, rapid industrialization, unscientific agricultural practices have already put a lot of pressure on soil resulting in reduced soil fertility, degraded wastelands and problematic soils. In India, out of the 329 m ha of geographical area, nearly 50% is subjected to degradation by the various agents like water, wind and biotic interference. In this chapter we will focus on the wastelands and problematic soils, their distribution, cause of formation, management practices mainly in respect to the Indian state of Jharkhand.

4.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to Indian ocean, Malaysia or Philippines

• Grows in tropical Pacific, Asia, and parts of east Africa.

• Areca is derived from a local name from Malabar Coast of India and catechu is from Malay name caccu.

• Karnataka (40%), Kerala (25%), Assam (20%), Tamil Nadu, Meghalaya and West Bengal are major arecanut growing states.

• India is the largest producer and consumer.

Arecanut (Areca catechu L.) or Betel nut is an extensively cultivated tropical palm, belongs to family Arecaceae, fruit (nut) or dry kernel of this tree is popularly known as the betel nut or supari is used for masticatory or Chewing purpose in India and all over world especially in West and South Asia. The major areca nut growing countries are: India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, China, Myanmar, Bhutan, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and Vietnam. In India, it is an important commercial crop and also forms part of ritual offerings in Hindu religion. India is the largest producer and largest consumer of Arecanut in the world. The present production of arecanut in India is cultivated in about 4.97 lakh ha with a production of 8.33 lakh tonnes of nuts with the productivity of 1.7MT/ha (Source: Department of Agriculture, Govt. of India, 2018). Arecanut is predominantly cultivated in traditional states like Karnataka, Assam, Kerala, Maharashtra, West Bengal and Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands and it’s cultivation is spread to non-traditional areas in Kamataka and Tamil Nadu. Areca nut is providing livelihood security for millions of people in rural and urban areas.

The seed contains alkaloids such as arecaidine and arecoline, which, when chewed, are intoxicating and slightly addictive. The seed also contains condensed tannins (procyanidins) called arecatannins. Chewing the mixture of arecanut and betel leaf is a tradition, custom or ritual which dates back thousands of years in much of the geographical areas from South Asia eastward to the Pacific.

Botanical Name: Areca catechu L.
Family : Palmae
Origin : India and South Eastern Countries.
Chromosome no. : 2n=32
Type of fruit : One-seeded berry.
Type of Inflorescence : Spadix 
Useable Part : Kernel or endosperm of the seed. 

Arecanut palm (Areca catechu L.) is the source of common masticatory nut, popularly known as arecanut, betelnut, or supari. It is used extensively in India by all sections of people as masticatory, and is an essential requisite for several religious and social ceremonies.

India is the largest producer and consumer of areca nut, Areca catechu also known as betel nut or supari, in the world. It also holds significant cultural and religious importance. Major cultivation is done in Karnataka, Kerala, Assam, Tamil Nadu, Meghalaya and West Bengal. Spindle bug and inflorescence caterpilar are the major pests alongwith root grub, the details of which are provided hereunder:

Spindle bug, Mircarvalhoia arecae (Miller and China) (Miridae: Hemiptera)

It is a major indirect pest of arecanut plantations in all arecanut growing tracts. Eggs are oval having 2 bristle like structures arising from operculum. The nymphs are greenish to violet brown, thorax and border of the abdomen light violet brown and head is light yellow with red eyes. The adult is a hairy dark violet brown bug with black tipped abdomen (Plate 12h) and measures 6mm in length and 2mm in breadth.

Spindle bug: Carvalhoia arecae :Miridae

Spindle bug is a serious pest multiplying rapidly with the close of monsoon. The adults are red and black and nymphs are greenish in colour with reddish brown patches. Both these stages colonize the top-most leaf axils at the base of the spindle. Adults and nymphs suck the sap from emerging spindle, tender leaves and other tender parts. For feeding they move out and later return to the axils again. At the site of feeding a longitudinal narrow, decolourised zone develops rapidly on either side of the puncture, along the length of the leaf blade. The decolourised patch gradually turns yellowish, then brownish, become stunted, twisted and malformed in a few days and dries up. In this way the tissues may break away and drop off in the wind leaving shot holes on the leaves. In cases of severe infestation the leaves get shred, stand erect and the palms become stunted.

AONLA

Emblica officinalis Gaertn

F: Euphorbiaceae

Aonla is one of the most important minor fruits of Indian origin, which is predicted to be the ‘fruit of the 21^st century’ even though it existed from time immemorial. It is also called as ‘Indian gooseberry’, ‘amla’, ‘nelli’, ‘amlaki’, ‘amali’, ‘ambala’ and ‘amalakamu’ in different parts of India. This species is indigenous to tropical SouthEastern Asia precisely the Central and Southern India. The crop is seen in Sri Lanka, Malaysia and China. In India, aonla is being cultivated on a commercial scale in northern parts comprising Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat.

The Arid Legume includes clusterbean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub.); moth bean (Vigna aconotifolia (Jacq) Marechal; cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp) and horse gram (Macrotylom uniflorum (L.) Verdc). In India, these are grown extensively as rainfed crops in Rajasthan, Orissa, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, Haryana, M.P. and to a limited extent in other states covering a total area of 51-80 lakh hectares (Table1). Most of the production comes from harsh environments where both biotic and abiotic constraints prevail limiting the production.

Arid Legumes as a group of pulses are extremely important in the common vegetarian diet of the people in the area of its cultivation. They also offer a new dimension as they have become foreign exchange earners through export opportunities. For example, clusterbean (guar) contains 30-35 per cent guar gum and India is a world leader in the export of this commodity and earns more than Rs.1100 crores annually (Mathur and Henry, 2009). Similarly, moth bean is gaining great industrial importance because of Bikaneri Bhujia industry which is heavily based on this crop (Singh and Henry, 1985). Cowpea is very important in Dahi bada industry and making curry preparation while horsegram is a minor pulse and is utilized by the poorest of the poor in its growing areas as well used for kidney stone treatment (Henry et.al., 2006; Vishwanatha et. al., 2006). Clusterbean and moth bean together account for 3.5 million hectare areas in the great Indian Thar Desert and play a very important role in the economy of the desert farmers. Similarly, cowpea and horse gram are grown mostly in marginal and sub-marginal lands under rainfed situations with no inputs applied by the farmers. These two pulses are grown in various areas in the country and easily adapted to various conditions.

Indian arid zone is one of the largest sub-tropical deserts of the world, of which 20 % is arid and the remaining semi-arid with varied habitats. The hot arid region is spread over 31.7 million ha mainly in Rajasthan (19.6 m ha), Gujarat (6.22 m ha), Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana. Rajasthan is the largest state in the country covering approximately 34.2 m ha geographical area out of which 27.1 m ha (79.08 % of total area) is laying in arid and semi-arid climate, spread over 21 out of 32 districts. Western part of Rajasthan is under hot arid climate (Thar Desert) and it extends from 24^º 37’ to 30^º 10’ N latitude and 690 29’ to 76^º 05’ E longitude. Barmer, Bikaner, Churu, Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Jaisalmer, Jalore, Jhunjhunnu, Jodhpur, Nagour, Pali and Sikar districts of Western Rajasthan account for 63.4 % area of  hot arid realm of India. Apart from these, about 10 % area each of Sirohi, Ajmer and Jaipur districts are also in arid region. Punjab and Haryana bound it in North and Gujarat in South. The Aravali hill ranges provide a natural boundary with semi-arid Eastern Rajasthan. In the West, it has a long international boundary with Pakistan.

S. enterica subspecies arizonae (Salmonella arizonae), the cause of an acute septicemic disease in young turkey poults.

Host Range

S. arizonae are reported from a variety of avian, mammalian and reptile species. Among avian in addition to turkeys, it has been reported in chicks, ducklings, psittacines and passerines.

Transmission

Organism is present in the intestinal tract of infected birds. Hence transmission is similar to motile salmonellae. Many workers have reported transmission in turkeys through infected ovaries. Wild birds, reptiles, rats and mice are reported as the common reservoir of the organism. The organism is also transmitted by direct contact and through contaminated feed and water.

The name ARNICA is derived from ARNAKIS means lambskin due to the wooly appearance of the leaf.

MONTANA from Latin word MOUNTAINOUS from the place that is grows.

History and Authority: Hahnemann introduced it in homoeopathic practice in 1805.

The part used is the entire fresh plant, including root.

Arnica is one of the most frequently used remedies in the homoeopathic materia medica. We think of it whenever injury, however remote, appears to be the cause of the trouble. The injury may be recent or remote. It may be a blow or a contusion. The patient has a bruised, sore feeling all over. Any surface on which the body lies appears to be hard. Various limbs of the body ache as if these have been beaten. Arnica is the remedy in such cases.

Aphids: Aphis gossypii :Aphididae

The aphids congregate on growing points and suck the sap. Honey dew secreted by the aphids can cause sooty mould in severe infestation. Attack leads to yellowish speckling and curling of leaves.
 
Thrips: Caliothrips indicus: Thripidae

Characteristic silvery white specks with black dots which are mostly faecal pellets, develop on leaves. Consequently, the leaves dry up.