eChapters

Waste is defined as anything that doesn’t add value to their operations. To the average person, waste is simply stuff that’s unwanted or useless. But from a scientific perspective, there’s really no such thing as waste. Nearly all the things we throw away can be transformed or processed in ways that make them useful again.

Waste comes in various forms, ranging from household trash to industrial byproducts. These include domestic waste, factory waste, e-waste, construction waste, agricultural waste, and more. We can categorize waste into different types:

Solid waste: This includes organic materials like vegetable and kitchen waste, as well as general household waste.

E-waste: Discarded electronic devices such as computers, TVs, and music systems fall into this category.

Liquid waste: This comprises water used in various industries, as well as waste from tanneries, distilleries, and thermal power plants.

Plastic waste: Items like plastic bags, bottles, and containers make up this category.

9.1 Introduction
In continuation to a comprehensive presentation of the fusion welding techniques in Chapters 5, 6, 7 and 8, this chapter presents advanced welding/ joining techniques, which are as listed below.
i. Cold metal transfer
ii. Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM)
iii. Thermal spraying
iv. Thermit welding
v. Ultrasonic welding
vi. Friction welding
vii. Diffusion bonding
viii. Soldering
ix. Brazing
x. Adhesive bonding
9.2 Cold Metal Transfer
A subset of gas metal arc welding is called Cold Metal Transfer (CMT). When it detects a short circuit, it reduces the weld current and retracts the weld wire, which causes a drop-by-drop deposit of weld material. The cold metal transfer was designed for thin materials and necessitates tight weld parameter control. Cold Metal Transfer combines a cutting-edge wire feed technology with high-speed digital management to create a regulated manner of material deposition with little heat input. In order to achieve enough energy to melt a tip of filler wire as well as the base material, the wire feed rate and cycle arcing phase are regulated. The cold metal transfer process has two primary features, viz. the occurrence of a short circuit in a stable and controlled manner, and the point of short circuit with low current correlating to a low heat input

7.1 Introduction

The practice of rainwater storage in the pond is quite common but still there is a need to improve its design. Most of the ponds used for rainwater storage are designed on thumb rule: either they are under or over designed. An over designed farm pond can meet the supplemental irrigation needs of the crop but it may not be economical. On the other hand, an under designed pond though economical, may not be able to meet the irrigation needs of the crops at all times. It is reported that in some case up to 20% of the farm area is used for construction of farm pond. These farm ponds are found not to be optimal. Although these ponds are able to meet the crop water demand at most of the stress periods, but considering the economics, they are observed not to be optimal. The big size farm ponds need large areas to be wasted for the digging of the structures. They need huge investment for their construction and lining. Hence, proper scientific studies are needed so that its storage becomes adequate to save the crops from the adverse effects of the drought in monsoon and to assure the possibility of growing a second crop in the winter and at the same time, it is economical also. Simulation studies by daily water balance models of both the crop field and the pond help to understand the availability of water in the pond to meet the supplemental irrigation demand of the crops.

10.1 Introduction
Many of the industrial components/ products are produced by forging corresponding workpieces. Carbon steel, alloy steel, tool steel, aluminium, stainless steel, duplex steel, copper, and brass are among the materials that can be forged. Many factors will cause the forging process to vary. For example, the forging operation for titanium will differ from that for stainless steel. Steel is a material that can be formed into a wide variety of items when heated to high temperatures, around 1200–1300 degrees Celsius. The metal’s grains lengthen in the direction of flow during the industrial forging process. The metal’s hardness is significantly increased as a result. The flow lines in the completed component will lie where the component will experience the most stress due to well-designed forging. The forging is classified into cold forging and hot forging.
10.2 Stress-Strain Curve of Metal Forming Process
When a metal is applied with a stress (force per unit area), it experiences a strain. The formula for the stress that is applied on a metal component is given below.

Integrating the function f (x) = 1 + e−x sin (4x) over the interval [0, 1]

using Simpson’s 1/3rd rule gives

(A) 1.021         (B) 0.091

(C) 1.321         (D) 2.642

9.1 Introduction

The water harvested in the farm pond is a very valuable commodity. Every care should be taken so that not a single drop is wasted. The two major forms of losses in farm pond are (i) evaporation losses and (ii) seepage losses. Evaporative water loss (E_loss) and losses due to seepage are the two vital natural outflow components of unlined farm ponds. Studies conducted byGuerra et al. (1990) and Pal et al. (1994) indicated that the seepage loss from unlined ponds amounts to 45-67 per cent whereas the E_loss constitutes 30 per cent of the total out flow from the system. Water losses by evaporation and seepage were 5.3 and 9 mm day^-1, respectively amounting to 70% of total storage in the ponds (Syamsiah et al.1994).

Estimate of evaporation across the country indicates that it is as high as 2000 mm in the semi-arid tropics. Annual average value of the evaporation loss varies from 1400 to 1800 mm across major parts of the country: the value being highest in west Rajasthan, parts of Saurasthtra and Tamilnadu and lowest in coastal Mysore, Bihar plateau and east M.P. Reliable statistics reveal that about 70 M ha m of water evaporates from the water bodies and land surfaces out of the total annual precipitation of about 400 M ha m received by the country. The total evaporation losses from the water surfaces are about 5 M ha m from the total storage of 15 M ha m in the reservoirs including ponds, lakes spread all over the country (Belgaumi et al.,1997). In this section, the methods to estimate the losses like seepage and evaporation and various techniques to control them are discussed.

Introduction

Ammonia has been described as one of the most significant limiting factors for the growth and survival of aquatic living resources among water quality criteria (Russo and Thurston, 1991). Ammonia is a common pollutant of water bodies and forms the main nitrogenous waste in fishes (Tomasso et al, 1980). It enters the river and stream directly from livestock wastes and indirectly via poorly treated waste-water discharge. The chemistry of ammonia in freshwater has been extensively reviewed and its toxicity to the fish is generally expressed as ammonia concentration (EIFAC, 1970; WHO, 1986). Ammonia is produced mainly in the fish liver (Goldstein et al, 1982), it reaches the gills through the blood (Evans and More, 1988), excreted through the epithelium (Evans and Cameron, 1986) and finally released into the water body. The accumulation of nitrogen may induce alternations in branchial tissue and causes fish mortality (Peters et al, 1984; Woker and Wuhrmann, 1950).

Ammonia is a weak base, in the acidic range almost all the ammonia gets converted to ammonium ion (NH₄ ⁺) but only a fraction of ammonia forms such ion at alkaline pH. However, in physiological ranges (pH: 7 to 8) about 2.5% of ammonia exists in a unionized form (Paley et al, 1993). The toxicity of ammonia in water is mainly the result of its unionized form (Richardson, 1997). The unionized ammonia accounts for the major part of metabolic ammonia excretion by diffusion down its concentration gradient (Cameron and Heisler, 1983). The unionized ammonia determines the toxicity level in the water and brings about great problems in pisciculture by causing various diseases (Burrows, 1964; Smart, 1976) and alternations in normal physiology (Cairns et al, 1975; Sarkar and Pramanik, 1986). The ratio of unionized ammonia to the total ammonia mainly depends on the pH and temperature of the freshwater. The concentration of unionized ammonia increases with increasing pH and temperature (Emerson et al, 1975). A rise in temperature and pH from 20⁰C to 25°C and 7.5 to 8.5 respectively gives the fifteen-fold increase in the amount of unionized ammonia.

Maturity Standards and Harvesting Indices

Harvesting : Harvesting is detaching a commodity from the point of its origin. This point of origin may be an above ground plant part i.e. shoot eg. apple, tomato etc. or an underground plant part eg potato, carrot, etc. or in water i.e. harvesting of fish from a pond (not to be covered in this book).

Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) is a member of the family Caryophyllaceae. Dianthus word was first coined by Theophrastus from Greek word “dios” meaning divine and “anthos” meaning flower. It is a half hardy, perennial plant, propagated commercially by terminal cuttings. It is being produced as a cut flower in the world. Carnation cut flower trade contributed about 15% of the world flower market. Till now, new carnation varieties have been produced mainly through conventional breeding method. The breeding procedure typically consists of hybridization, self-pollination and selection (Holly and Baker, 1992). The breeding programme did not get enough momentum due to heterozygosity, limited gene pool and inadequate knowledge of genetic make up. However genetic engineering and molecular breeding have opened the way to achieve novel colour and good vase life of flowers.

Abstract: Snapdragon, a decorative ornamental, is used as model plant for genetic and biochemical study. These are popular flowering potted plants, bedding plants and cut flowers around the world due to their flowering floriferousness, wide range in flower colour, size, and shape with numerous phenotypes (Tall Giant/ Grandiflora, Super Giant, Dwarf, Semi-dwarf, Miniature, etc.) series (Butterfly, Rocket Hybrid, Sweet Heart, Pixie, etc.) and cultivars available in market. Hybrid seed production transformed the crop; continued domestication by flower breeders produced a wide range of flower colours and flower patterns. The increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern snapdragon breeders. Snapdragons are of the few floriculture crops which have genetic evolutionary race history, precise elucidation of taxonomic relationships between taxa, genomic maps, and advanced molecular genetics. In particular elucidation of the genes involved in control of floral development and in anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway has enabled precision in the creation of new flower colours or modification of floral symmetry and expression.

Keywords: Antirrhinum, taxonomy, flower shape, structural genes, molecular biology.

Abstract
Toxicants, whether naturally occurring or synthetic, present significant threats to aquatic ecosystems, leading to severe ecological damage and health hazards. These pollutants—such as pesticides, heavy metals, microplastics, and pharmaceuticals—contaminate water bodies through various routes, including industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, and insufficient wastewater treatment. They interfere with biological processes, causing problems like neurological damage, reproductive issues, and changes in water chemistry. Understanding the processes of bioaccumulation, biomagnification, bioconcentration, bioavailability and detoxification is essential for grasping how these contaminants impact aquatic organisms and human health. The rise of emerging pollutants, like microplastics and pharmaceuticals, adds further complexity, posing new challenges to ecosystem stability. Addressing these issues requires effective management and mitigation strategies, including reducing pollutant sources, improving waste treatment, and utilizing advanced detection techniques. Through research on these toxicants and their interactions, it is possible to better evaluate their effects, craft effective environmental policies, and implement measures to safeguard both aquatic ecosystems and public health.
Keywords: Toxicants, Bioaccumulation, Biomagnification, Bioconcentration, Bioavailability, Detoxification

Abstract

A very strong shallow focus submarine earthquake (of magnitude 9.0) occurred off the west coast of Sumatra Island due to the movement of Indian Plate and Burma Plate on 26th December 2004 at 06:18:53 IST. A vast area around its epicentre was rocked including Andaman and Nicobar Islands and parts of the eastern and western coasts of the Indian mainland. This earthquake had generated a global tsunami, which had also pounced on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the coasts of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala and caused severe damage to the coastal population and infrastructure. Considering the devastation of this tsunamigenic earthquake, the Department of Science & Technology, Govt. of India has launched a coordinated programme for imparting S & T inputs with futuristic approach to support rehabilitation programme in the affected areas on a sustainable manner. The main objective of the programme is to generate geospatial databases on damages and risk zonation using pre and post-tsunami remote sensing (RS) data along with collateral attribute data in GIS platform. This paper speaks on the damage assessment (both natural / physical resources and human resources) caused by the earthquake and tsunami covering parts of Andaman Islands along with strategies for risk management and constraints and alternatives for micro level planning.

Keywords: Tsunamigenic earthquake, Damage Assessment, Remote Sensing and GIS, Andaman - Nicobar.

Gladiolus (Gladiolus spp.) belongs to family Iridaceae and subfamily Ixioideae. Gladiolus is a Latin word, the diminutive of “gladius” meaning sword, sometimes called as sword lily. The plant is herbaceous perennial and semi-hardy. It is commonly grown from rounded, symmetrical corm, which is enveloped in several layers of brownish, fibrous tunics. The cultivated gladiolus is a complex assemblage of cultivars originating from complex ancestry of natural selection or hybridization involving several species. Modern garden gladiolus is a complex of at least twelve species (Raghava, 2000). It is an important commercial cut flower in both domestic and international markets.

Abstract: The size of the homegardens ranged between 0.10-1.00 ha; they were located in tropical region with multi-storied structure, commonly containing three layers but sometimes with four layers. Individual households were the sampling units and for each homegarden, the area was measured and crop composition, species richness and uses of plant species was enumerated through direct observation and interviews with the farmers. The composition and richness of species varied between the homegardens but was related to site characteristics and size of the garden. A total of 231 plant species (105 tree species, 50 shrubs and 76 herbs) belonging to 88 families were recorded from the gardens among which 27% species were common to all gardens. Among the trees, as many as 24 species (23%) were common to all the homegardens. The vegetable species constituted the major functional group followed by fruits. Homegardens were found to be a good reservoir of plant genetic resources that preserve diverse landraces, cultivars, and many more ecologically and economically important plant species. Our study depicts that the homegardens can play an important role in food security and sustainable livelihood support of this hilly people in a variety of ways and can be an alternative to shifting cultivation.

6.1 Introduction

Torrefaction is a thermophilic process of biomass conversion into a solid, friable, homogenous coal-like material, which has better fuel characteristics than the original biomass. Torrefaction involves the heating of biomass material in the absence of air at 250 to 300°C temperature. Torrefaction produces high-grade hydrophobic nature solid biofuels from various streams of woody biomass or agro residues.Torrefied biomass has high energy density then the original biomass which make torrefied biomass as renewable alternate source for power generation in coal power plant. Torrefied biomass being hydrophobic in nature can be stored easily for longer duration with negligible biological degradation. At 250-300°C temperature volatilization has been taking place and around 30% mass of the biomass is reduced as compared to original untorrefied biomass with net energy loss of approximately around 10%.The end product is a predictable, homogeneous, hydrophobic, high value solid biofuel with far higher energy density and calorific value than the original biomass feedstock. During the torrefaction process a combustible gas is released, which can also utilised to provide heat to the process. The process diagram of torrefaction process is shown in Fig. 6.1.

Introduction

Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy and helps the system as a whole for socio-economy development of the country. Despite 51 per cent of arable land of total geographical area and about 100 million hectares of potential irrigated area, the highest for any country in the world, unfortunately the contribution of agriculture to the grass domestic product is as low as 22 per cent. India is endowed with a wide spectrum of agro climatic conditions and a large variety of fruit crops ranging from tropical, sub­tropical and temperate are grown. In India, the area under fruit crops is 3.5 Mha with a production 45MT which accounts 9.6 % of total worlds production and ranks 2nd in fruit production (Anon., 2005). The country has become self-sufficient in food grains production, second largest producer of fruits and vegetables, but still the per capita consumption per day is hardly of the order of 70 g for fruits and 140 g for vegetables.

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L., Family: Anacardiaceae) is a very important crop in India for earning foreign exchange. Portuguese travelers introduced this plant into India from Brazil during sixteenth century and the purpose was to check soil erosion on the coastal area. Though initially this crop is considered as a remedy for soil conservation, wasteland development and afforestation, but it gradually became a commercial important crop. Cashew is now widely grown in tropical regions and well adapted to the climatic condition of India. Now India becomes the largest producer, consumer, processor and exporter of cashew in the world. In India, cashew is mainly cultivated in Goa, Maharashtra, Kerala and Karnataka along the West coast and Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Pondicherry and West Bengal along the East coast. To a limited extent it is also grown in some nontraditional areas like Kolar region of Karnataka and Bastar region of Chhattisgarh.

Muscle structure
• All muscles are composed of muscle fibres which are the structural unit of muscles
• In turn, every single muscle fibre is made up of numerous smaller components called myofibrils
• Functional unit of myofibril is sarcomere
Connective tissues associated with muscle
• Whole muscle is surrounded by a sheath of connective tissue called epimysium
• Whole muscle is divided into muscle bundles by perimysium formed out of connective tissue septa originating from the interior surface of the epimysium separating the muscle fibres
• The perimysium contains the blood vessels and nerves

Abstract: The adoption of agroforestry systems has gained wider attention in the Multilateral Environment Agreements (MEA), international academia and policy makers for their multifunctional role and dynamics of ecosystem services. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has put forward ecosystem approach while Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) emphasized agroforestry as an appropriate means to reduce emissions and enhance sinks of green house gases. Traditional agroforestry systems such as cardamom-based and farm-based practices are good examples in the Eastern Himalayas. We analyzed the management diversities and functional roles of these agroforestry systems for their productive and protective functions, biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, reduction of run-off rainfall, improvement of soil fertility, nutrient dynamics, nutrient release through decomposition, N2-fixation, energetics and efficiencies. Use of N2-fixing Himalayan alder (Alnus nepalensis) in large cardamom (Amomum subulatum) and Albizia spp. in mandarin agroforestry are traditional innovations. The agroforestry systems and practices are examples of how fragile and steep slopes of the mountains are converted into ecologically resilient productive zones. These adaptive traditional agroforestry provide options for sustainable management of natural resources from a unit land use types to a landscape level land use stages and offer opportunities for socioeconomic benefits.

Introduction

Water is a precious natural resource vital, for sustaining all life on the earth. It is in a continuous circulatory movement - hydrologic cycle. It is not uniformly distributed in time and space. Due to its multiple benefits and the problems created by its excesses, shortages and quality deterioration, water as a resource requires special attention. On a global scale, total quantity of water available is about 1600 million cubic km. The hydrological cycle moves enormous quantities of water about the globe. However, much of the world’s water has little potential for human use because 97.5% of all water on earth is saline water. Out of remaining 2.5% fresh water, most of which lies deep and frozen in Antarctica and Greenland, only about 0.26% flows in rivers, lakes and in the soils and shallow aquifers which can be readily used. Sustainable water management in India is fast becoming a necessity, with the looming crisis over water resources in the country threatening the security and livelihood of the population and the environment over the coming decades. Managing water resources, river catchments, and coastal zones are outstanding challenges of today and tomorrow’s. Global changes ask for a comprehensive scientific approach, an international multi-disciplinary orientation and require a new mind-set towards water and coastal management problems.