eChapters

There has been a surge of data in every field of research due to advancements in information technology. Data collection and storage has become much easier and cheaper in recent years. This voluminous data needs to be systematically stored for quick retrieval, process and to find useful patterns. Data mining techniques help in deriving useful patterns from data. These techniques which are also called as machine learning techniques majorly categorized as classification, clustering and association rule mining methods. Classification is a supervised learning method which needs labeled dataset for model building and prediction purposes. Clustering and association rule mining methods do not require labeled dataset and hence they are referred as unsupervised learning methods.

Clustering aims at grouping the objects based on a set of measured variables where similar objects are assigned to one group. For example, let us say, if we have collected information on 50 fish pond parameters (50 variables) and we wish to find the groups in terms of pond management (like well managed to poorly managed), with cluster analysis, we can group the ponds based on pond variables. In the process of clustering, each pond is assigned to one of the groups made. The question is how many natural clusters present in the data as in many cases we would not be getting perfect clusters of disjoint sets. We can achieve better accuracies in cluster formation only by trial and error. Good clustering criteria are to see that there is minimum with-in cluster variations and maximum between cluster variations.

Cluster analysis has several applications in fisheries research. It could be used to group fish stocks from different regions, categorise ponds based on their technical efficiencies, identify the farm clusters with high disease risk, group farmers based on their preferences, agro zoning based on climatic variables and culture practices. Cluster analysis is also applied in fish bioinformatics to group the similar sequences.

Botany

Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera), also known as Indian ginseng belonging to the family Solanaceae, is an important ancient plant, the roots of which have been employed in Indian traditional systems of medicine, Ayurveda and Unani to cure asthma, fever, chest complaints. It is an erect branching undershrub reaching about 1.50 m in height. It grows in dry and sub-tropical regions. Being hardy and drought tolerant species with its enormous biocompounds, its usage is forever regarded and continuous to enjoy the monopoly in many parts of India, particularly in Madhya Pradesh. It grows in dry parts in sub-tropical regions. Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh are the major Ashwagandha producing states of the country. Roots are fleshy, tapering, whitish brown. Leaves are ovate and flowers are greenish. The mature fruits are orange-red berries.

Varieties:Poshita and Rakshita are high yielding varieties released by CSIRCIMAP, Lucknow. Jawahar 20 is cultivated in Madhya Pradesh. WSR is another variety released by CSIR-Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu. Nagori is a local variety with starchy roots

4.1. Origin and distribution

• It is called as Indian ginseng.

• Native of Africa, India and Mediterranean region.

• Wild in grazing grounds in Mandsaur and forest lands in Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh, all over foothills of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh and Western Uttar Pradesh, in Himalayas.

• Also wild in Mediterranean regions in North Africa.

4.2. Economic importance

Improved Varieties of Asparagus

(1) Perfection

Source : Developed at IARI, New Delhi

Maturity : Early

Spears : Large, green, succulent, heavy cropper and uniform in maturity

Production Technology of Asparagus

Climate

Asparagus is temperate season vegetable and bears excellent crop between a temperature range of 15-24ºC for most of the growing season. The ideal day temperature is 25-30^oC and night temperature 15-20^oC. It can tolerate frost up to some extent but continuous freezing is harmful for its growth. Spear initiation occurs at soil temperature of more than 10ºC. Spear elongation is faster at high air temperature. Root and shoot development is reduced below 13ºC and above 29ºC. Due to warm weather, spear tips open prematurely and quality of spears is reduced. Elevation of more than 1000m is good for high yield.

Asparagus is an herbaceous perennial that is widely grown in the United States, Germany, Spain, and France, with India contributing only a little amount. For many years, asparagus has been grown. This was a favourite crop of the Ancient Greeks and Romans. It belongs to the Liliaceae family and is thought to have originated in the eastern Mediterranean and further east in the Caucasus Mountains. It’s a monocotyledonous perennial that’s farmed for its edible stems (spears).

Introduction

Mushrooms are very nutritious products that can be generated from lignocellulosic waste materials; and are in rich in crude fibrend protein. In fact, mushrooms also contain low fat, low calories and good vitamins. In addition, many mushrooms possess multi-functional medicinal properties. Edible mushrooms once called the “food of the gods” and still treated as a garnish or delicacy can be taken regularly as part of the human diet or be treated as healthy food or as functional food. The extractable products from medicinal mushrooms, designed to supplement the human diet not as regular food, but as the enhancement of health and fitness, can be classified into the category of dietary supplements/mushroom nutriceuticals (Chang and Buswell, 1996).

According to Indian Philosophy (Bhat, 2012) the physical body is called Annamaya Kosha.A body, when well nourished grows well by absorbing the energies from the food consumed. Fasting is another aspect of traditional food system. It is meant to purify the mind and the body.

Introduction

This is a disease mainly of the respiratory system affecting domestic poultry, wild birds and zoo birds. Systemic aspergillosis affecting visceral organs and other tissues of the bird’s body is also reported. Reports are also available on eye and brain infections.

Assam is surrounded by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh on the North; Nagaland and Manipur on the East; Meghalaya and Mizoram on the South and Bangladesh, Tripura and West Bengal on the West. The total land area of Assam is 78,523 sq. km and it accounts for 2.4% of total geographical area of the country. Demographically, Assam is the most populous state in the North East India. Economically, out of eight North East states, Assam is the most developed one, but compared to other states like Maharastra, Tamilnadu, Gujrat, it lags far behind in almost all economic spheres.

Antibiotics are produced by some true bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi that destroy or inhibit the growth of other microorganisms. Some antibiotics are synthesized or modified in the laboratory; however, their origins are always in living cells.

9.1 Assay of Antibiotics

Soil serves as the major repository of microorganisms some of which produces antibiotics. Four groups of soil microorganisms viz; Streptomyces, Bacillus, Penicillium and Cephalosporium represent three microbial types, namely, actinomycetes, true bacteria and molds respectively.

Following procedure may be applied to isolate antibiotic-producing microorganisms from soil:

Isolation and Purification of Secondary Metabolites

Isolation

The act of isolating something; setting something apart from others.

Purification

The process of making pure, free from anything that debases, pollutes, or contaminates, the process of removing impurities.

Introduction

The characterization of the potential health impact of engineered materials produced through nanotechnology is an emerging issue of considerable discussion and debate. The current focus on nanotoxicity fails to assess the risk in different local environments and populations. People in developing countries may be more prone to adverse effects of nanoparticles because of underlying health conditions and malnutrition. Moreover, genetic susceptibility to toxic effects varies in diverse ethnic groups and geographical areas. The scientific community needs to identify these information gaps before developing regulations and standard methodologies for nanotoxicity assessment.

Need for systematic mapping and hazard zonation is emphasized in this chapter. Though prevention of natural disaster is not possible, its destruction could be minimized through implementation of effective hazard management system. With this motive, the coastal region between Tangapatnam and Ovari, Tamilnadu State has been classified into various categories of vulnerability based on its response to the 26th December 2004 tsunami. Based on the extent of seawater inundation and coastal geomorphic features, we have assessed the tsunami impact and estimated the behavior of the beaches in case of similar havoc in future. This study had shown that the maximum seawater inundation recorded in the study area is 750m in Colachel and the minimum is 100m in Kadiapatanam, Mandakadu and Vaniakudy areas. Chinnamuttom, Kanyakumari, Manakudy, Pallam and Colachel areas are under high risk.

INTRODUCTION

On 26^th December 2004, tectonic disturbances happened near Sumatra Island with an intensity of 9.3 in the Richter scale wrecked havoc on southwest part of India. In addition to inflicting life and infrastructure loss, the resultant tsunami event had also eroded severely the coastal region and modified topography of beach and shallow coastal regions. It did raise the concern of scientists and emergency planners about the impact of larger earthquake and consequent tsunami should there be any recurrence of such event. Despite becoming aware of tsunami hazard, there has been confusion about areas at risk and areas of safety. This chapter is an attempt to assess the vulnerability of part of Tamilnadu coast based on its geomorphological conditions and the impact of recent tsunami. The hazard maps have been generated and are intended for educational purposes, to improve awareness of tsunami hazards and to encourage responsible emergency planning efforts by illustrating the range of possible tsunami events.

Abstract

Higher temperature and altered rainfall patterns accompanied by extreme weather events are being considered indications of climate change. These factors impact vegetation growth in natural forest, open scrub and in agriculture land. Vegetation index based on satellite data was used to analyse agricultural vulnerability in India to understand impact of rainfall variability. Time-series Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data products obtained from AVHRR (1982 to 2006) and MODIS (2000-2011) were analyzed to assess spatial and temporal variability. Coefficient of variation of maximum NDVI was assessed for the study period and results were corroborated with Standard Precipitation Index (SPI) instead of actual rainfall. Resolution of AVHRR time-series data facilitated study at regional-scale while MODIS datasets with 250m pixel resolution helped in identifying vulnerability at district-level. Study indicated that over 241 Mha areas in the country may not be vulnerable to rainfall variability induced climate change while over 81.3 Mha in arid, semi-arid and dry sub- humid regions may be vulnerable. Study indicated that over 12.1 and 1.81 Mha of Kharif cropland would be mildly and severally vulnerable while 6.86 and 0.5 Mha of Rabi cropland may be adversely affected in a similar manner. Study indicated that length of cropping season was decreasing due to delay in start of season. The paper also presents analysis of variations in SPI and resultant NDVI in typical drought and flood years in the country.

Keywords: MODIS, AVHRR, NDVI, Rainf ed Agricul ture, Vulnerability, Climate Change

Abstract

The paper deals with taxonomy, ethnobotany and threat status of lesser known liana species Hodgsonia heteroclita (Roxb.) Hook.f. & Thomson. The local people use in terms of foods and rites and its role in ecosystem have been reported. Local people used the seeds of liana as food because of high nutritive value. Threat assessment has been following IUCN version 3.1 to evaluate the threat status of the species in Sikkim Himalaya. Out of the five criteria, data on two criteria could be collected and was used to evaluate the threat category of the species. The criteria used for threat assessment were (a) reduction in population and (b) geographical range in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence) or B2 (area of occupancy) or both. Considering the population status and geographical range of the species, it has been classified as “Least Concern” (A1acd; B2ab(ii,iv)).

Introduction 
SDG 3 emphasizes good health and well-being for people globally. In this chapter, we will focuses on the health and well-being of the Indigenous Khasi Tribe living in Meghalaya, India. The Khasi Tribe comprises 7 sub-tribes, commonly known as ‘Seven Huts’ or ‘HynniewTrep, HyniewSkum’ in the Khasi language. The 7 sub tribes are Khynriam, Pnar, Bhoi, War, Maram, Lyngngam and Dikko. Although the culture, tradition, and beliefs are shared among all subtribes, earning them the common name Khasi Tribe, there are slight differences in terms of topography. Some sub-tribes live in sloping or steep mountainous areas, engaging primarily in forestry and horticulture, while others reside in plain areas, where they cultivate agricultural crops. As an indigenous group, the Khasi community follows certain beliefs and practices related to health and well-being. The Khasi tribe is a matrilineal society where women hold great responsibility at home and in the community. Some researchers have acknowledged that the Khasi tribe is one of the tribes in India with a better status in terms of literacy rates and nutritional status. (D Agrahar- Murugkar, 2004). Approximately 83% of the Khasi tribe are agrarian. The main food items that boost their immune system and make them strong and healthy include rice, dal, potato, tomato, bamboo shoot, pumpkin, green vegetables, citrus fruits, and meat (beef, pork, fish, eggs, and dry fish), which they cook in their own indigenous style. The majority of them are non-vegetarian. A common stimulant is betel nut, which has been used since ancient times as a social mediator to connect with others and form friendships. The Khasi people are hardworking; enjoy games and sports, and traditional music. In terms of social well-being, the Khasi tribe has a strong sense of “we feeling”, supporting one another, following ethical and moral instincts, and respecting one another. They believe in the spirits of Mother Nature (ki blei, ki basa). To maintain strong bonding and enhance Khasi Tribe sentiments, various festivals are celebrated every year, such as Shad Suk Mynsiem, Shad Nongkrem, Seng Kut Snem, Pom Blang, and Beh Diengkhlam. They also pay homage to freedom fighters who have died for the Khasi land, such as Tirot Sing, Kiang Nongbah, and Phan Nonglait. Following the legacy of these freedom fighters, various leaders are heading civil groups that monitor the performance of government administration and other welfare states for common social well-being.

Concept: It’s a natural process that modifies the cytology, physiology, biochemistry, and physical characteristics of seeds. These modifications lower viability and ultimately result in the seed’s death. A decline in the proportion of germination indicates degradation, and weak seedlings are produced by seeds that do germinate. The factors that impact the ability of seed to be stored include the seed’s quality at the time of storage, its pre-storage history (environmental factors during pre- and post-harvest stages), its moisture content or ambient relative humidity, the temperature of the storage environment, the amount of time the seed is stored, and biotic agents. Seed will inevitably get damaged when being stored (Balesevic-Tubic et al., 2005). The quality of the seed at the time of storage, its pre-storage history (environmental factors during pre and post-harvest stages), its moisture content or ambient relative humidity, the temperature of the storage environment, the length of time the seed is stored, and biotic agents are factors that affect the seed’s ability to be stored. Different physical changes can happen to seed during storage because of factors like temperature, moisture content, and length of storage. The viability and vigor of the seeds may be impacted by these modifications.

INTRODUCTION

Heterotrophic organisms, such as zooplankton, use phytoplankton as food, regenerating nutrients through metabolic processes and transferring energy to higher trophic levels. Zooplankton are involved in the conversion of waste matter into animal food that may be consumed, in addition to helping to shift food from the primary to the secondary level. These species act as a bridge in the food chain, carrying energy from the primary producers, planktonic algae, to the larger predatory invertebrates and fish that eat them (Kumari et al., 2008). Macróplankton (200–2000 μm), microplankton (20–200 μm), nanoplankton (2–20 μm), picoplankton (0.2-2 μm), and femtoplankton (0.02 0.2 μm) are the different sizes of plankton (Kumar et al., 2023).

The sensitivity of zooplankton to alterations in aquatic environments is significant. Differences in species composition, abundance, and distribution of body size can be used to identify the consequences of environmental disturbances(Joshi & Joshi, 2011). A number of variables, including temperature, sunlight, ocean currents, and nutrition availability, affect plankton populations. They are vital to ecosystems because they support carbon cycling, global biodiversity, and the general health of the oceans (Cottenie et al., 2001). An evaluation of the pollution state heavily depends on the interaction between phytoplankton diversity and environmental conditions. The diversity of algae found in the Chlorophyceae family is a key sign of the quality of the water. The differences in water quality can be attributed to a combination of natural and human-caused factors. Owing to extensive human activity, anthropogenic inputs from various sources are typically the main variables influencing the water quality of the majority of rivers, lakes, estuaries, and seas, particularly those that are next to densely populated areas(Jeyaraj et al., 2016). Living things, including plants, plankton, animals, and bacteria, are known as bioindicators, and they are used to monitor the state of the environment's natural ecosystem. They are known across the world as aquatic pollution indicator species. Every organic entity in a biological system gives information about the state of its surroundings. For example, plankton responds quickly to changes in the environment and is a valuable biomarker for determining the quality of water as well as a sign of pollution. Plankton is the best indicator of the health of aquatic flora and serves as an early warning system(Wadjikar et al., 2017). An ecosystem that is in balance is one in which beneficial interactions occur between the environment and living organisms. Since water quality is essential to maintaining an environment in balance, it is evident that it plays a crucial role in this relationship(Jeyaraj et al., 2016).

Introduction

Climate change and human activities have emerged as significant factors affecting water resources in diverse regions (Kumar et al. 2022; Haddeland et al. 2014). The escalation in human water consumption for domestic and industrial purposes enhanced by the impacts of climate change has resulted in an overall decline in water availability (Liu et al. 2017; Paul et al. 2021). Rising temperatures and altered precipitation patterns directly influence water availability for ecosystems and agriculture potentially leading to greater evapotranspiration rates, intensified rainfall events, and prolonged droughts (Sharannya et al. 2021; Myers et al. 2023). Furthermore, urbanization, deforestation, and agricultural practices alter landscapes, affecting water resources in these areas.

Water shortages pose threats to ecosystem health, and socio-economic development and disrupt agricultural production (Piao et al. 2010). Thus, ensuring sustainable and efficient water usage necessitates accounting for water usage and quantifying it in a changing environment. To comprehensively assess the significance of water resources in the environment, Falkenmark (1995) introduced the concept of blue water (BW) and green water (GW) water, particularly for managing water resources in water-stressed regions. Green water refers to the portion of precipitation that infiltrates into the unsaturated soil layer and is subsequently utilized by plants through transpiration and soil evaporation. In fact, “blue water” represents surface and groundwater flow in rivers, lakes, and aquifers (Abate et al 2024; Sharannya et al. 2021). While numerous studies have investigated the spatial and temporal variation of BW and GW using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) (Feng et al. 2021; Li et al. 2009; Lyu et al. 2019), fewer publications have focused on assessing these variations and uncertainties at the basin scale under varying climate scenarios (Sharma et al. 2023). Hydrological models such as SWAT, serve as valuable tools for simulating past and future hydrological changes in the watersheds using projected climate data. SWAT specifically can simulate both blue and green flows at the watershed scale.