eChapters

18.1 Determination of Electrical Conductivity of Soil Solution

The conductivity or more precisely the specific conductance of a soil at a given soil-water ratio is the reciprocal of the specific resistance offered by the solution at 25ºC between the electrodes of 1 sq cm cross section kept 1 cm apart. Thus, the electrical conductivity of any solution depends on the amount of soluble salt present in it. Knowledge on the extent of salinity is important for management of saline soil including the choice of the crop suitable for that soil. Soluble salt content in saturation extract is more reliable index of salinity level than in soil: water ratio of 1: 2 or 1: 2.5, because it simulates the extent of salinity experienced by crop in field moisture condition.

Salinity class of soil is based on the electrical conductivity (EC) of saturation extract at 25ºC. However, EC of water extract from 1:2 soil-water suspension can be transformed into the EC of saturation extract following the formula (except for soil containing gypsum).

11.1. Determination of Electrical Conductivity of Soil Solution

The conductivity or more precisely the specific conductance of a soil at a given soil-water ratio is the reciprocal of the specific resistance offered by the solution at 25ºC between the electrodes of 1 sq cm cross section kept 1 cm apart. Thus, the electrical conductivity of any solution depends on the amount of soluble salt present in it. Knowledge on the extent of salinity is important for management of saline soil including the choice of the crop suitable for that soil. Soluble salt content in saturation extract is more reliable index of salinity level than in soil: water ratio of 1: 2 or 1: 2.5 because it simulates the extent of salinity experienced by crop in field moisture condition.

Salinity class of soil is based on the electrical conductivity (EC) of saturation extract at 25ºC. However, EC of water extract from 1:2 soil-water suspension can be transformed into the EC of saturation extract following the formula (except for soil containing gypsum).

Pure water is a poor conductor of electricity. Water may carry electricity fairly well when it contains electrolytes such as Acids, bases and salts. Electrolytes in the solution dissociates with cations and anions and pass on electrical conductivity. Hence, more electrolytes concentration in water, more its electrical conductance. The following ions are crucial for adding conductivity to water.
i) Cations: Mg 2+,Ca2+, Na+ and K+
ii) Anions: Cl-, S4
-, CO3
-, HCO3
-and NO3
-
In the International System of units (SI) the reciprocal of ohm is the Siemens (S) and conductivity is reported as millisiemens per meter (mS/m). 1 mS/m = 10 µS/cm = 10 µmhos/cm and 1 µS/cm = 1 µmhos/cm Principle
The quantity and kind of ions present in a solution affect conductivity, which is a numerical representation of a water sample’s capacity to conduct electricity. Since the majority of dissolved inorganic compounds in water are ionised, they add to conductance. The definition of conductance G is the reciprocal of resistance R.

Pure water is a poor conductor of electricity. Water may carry electricity fairly well when it contains electrolytes such as Acids, bases and salts. Electrolytes in the solution dissociates with cations and anions and pass on electrical conductivity. Hence, more electrolytes concentration in water, more its electrical conductance. The following ions are crucial for adding conductivity to water.
i) Cations: Mg 2+,Ca2+, Na+ and K+
ii) Anions: Cl-, S4
-, CO3
-, HCO3
-and NO3
-
In the International System of units (SI) the reciprocal of ohm is the Siemens (S) and conductivity is reported as millisiemens per meter (mS/m). 1 mS/m = 10 µS/cm = 10 µmhos/cm and 1 µS/cm = 1 µmhos/cm Principle
The quantity and kind of ions present in a solution affect conductivity, which is a numerical representation of a water sample’s capacity to conduct electricity. Since the majority of dissolved inorganic compounds in water are ionised, they add to conductance. The definition of conductance G is the reciprocal of resistance R.

Introduction

Proper electrical wiring and earthing are crucial for laboratory safety and functionality. A laboratory houses several installations/equipment that demand stable/continuous power supply. Inappropriate or faulty wiring and earthing may lead to significant risks, including electrical shocks, damage to equipment, and even incidence of fire. Therefore, understanding the requirements of electrical wiring and earthing is essential for designing, construction, and maintenance of laboratory. This chapter aims to provide a basic knowledge of electrical wiring and earthing necessary for a laboratory. Importance of earthing in mitigating electrical hazards and ensuring integrity of electrical installations are also described.

Basics of Electrical Wiring

Basic understanding of electrical wiring is necessary for laboratory safety and efficient electrical functioning. The potential difference between two electrical points (negative and positive) is known as Voltage, which drives the flow of electric current. This is measured as volt (V). The rate of flow of electricity in a circuit is known as Current (I), which is measured as ampere (A). Current can be either direct (DC) or alternating (AC). Opposition/resistance experienced in the flow of current in circuit is known as Resistance (R) and it is measured in ohms (Ω). Higher the resistance means lesser the current flows at a given voltage. The rate at which electrical energy is transferred/utilized in an electric circuit is known as Power (P), which is measured in watt (W). The Power can be calculated as the product of voltage and current (P = V × I).

13.1. Types

Lamps: Head lamp, plough lamp, indicators

Switches: Safety switch, starter switch, etc

13.2. Components

Battery: A battery provides power to electrical or electronic circuits. The voltage rating of a battery tells how much electrical “pressure” the battery can provide. Battery energy is used to operate starter motor and to provide current to the ignition system during cranking. The electrolyte should always be maintained just below the maximum level, but should not go down below the 1/4^th level.

Alternator: Alternators are electromechanical devices used to convert mechanical energy to alternating current electrical energy. While some of the alternators use rotating magnetic field, some use linear. The functioning of alternators is similar to that of direct current generators. As the magnetic field around a conductor changes, a current is induced in the conductor. The rotating magnet or the rotor turns and cuts the field across the conductors. Thus, an electrical current is produced which causes the rotor to turn. This rotating magnetic field causes an AC voltage in the stator windings. In tractors, alternators are used to charge the battery and to power the electric system when its engine is running. An alternator is superior to a dynamo as it provides more precise output control, requires lesser maintenance, is more compact and requires no cut-out.

Introduction

Clean and renewable energy is a basic requirement for developmental activities. Global energy crisis is caused by increasing world population, escalating demand due to urbanisation, and continued dependence on fossil-based fuels. Non-renewable energy sources like coal, natural gas oil contribute 79 per cent of world electricity generation; only 21 per cent comes from renewable energy sources. Promoting the use of existing renewable energy sources and identifying new environment-friendly technology is gaining importance. Switching to renewable energy sources like wind energy, ocean energy and solar energy is gaining a lot of importance. These green technologies emit less greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and hence are pollution free and immensely available. Recently, investigators have identified plants as weak energy sources. Plants are versatile organisms capable of communicating with each other with a number of signaling mechanisms. It was observed that plants generate electronic signals inside their system. The concept of utilising electronic signals for studying various physiological plant processes was first put forth by Sir Acharya J. C. Bose, an eminent biophysicist, botanist, archaeologist and polymath from India (Fromm and Lautner, 2007). His ideologies and concepts of movements of plants laid the foundation for modern electrophysiology-a branch of physiology that deals with electrical phenomena associated with metabolic functions. Attempts have been made to harvest electricity from free electrons available in plant leaves produced during photosynthesis and from rhizosphere of plants formed as a result of bacterial activity. Currently, a lot of attention is being given to improvise and develop this technology. To proceed forward in this direction, it is very critical to understand the mechanism of electrical signaling in plants.

This chapter on electrocardiograms for self-exercise is designed to provide opportunities to the readers to assess their understanding of reading and interpreting electrocardiograms and to increase their confidence. Each electrocardiogram has its detail and a question to answer. On the reverse side of each electrocardiographic tracing, detailed reading and interpretation is provided to match your assessment and to improve your interpretation skill. It is to be remembered that each electrocardiogram should be evaluated in conjunction with complete data base (history, clinical manifestations, laboratory investigations, radiological observations, and echocardiographic observations).

Electrocardiograph, electrocardiography and electrocardiogram are the three terms commonly associated with ECG or EKG. Though, these terms are interdependent, there is clear differentiation and demarcation between these terms and should not be used as synonym.

Electrocardiograph

The term “Electrocardiograph” refers to an instrument or machine that records surface potentials associated with the electrical activity of the heart to generate a graphic representation, the electrocardiogram (Fig.1).

Electrocardiogram is a visual record of electrical activities going on in the heart during depolarization and repolarization (cardiac cycle). It is one of the simplest and fasted non-invasive diagnostic test available to evaluate cardiac function. Though the heart of large mammals have many similarities, difference in shape, size, positioning in thoracic cavity and innervation of Purkinje f ibers exists in different species of the animals making the electrocardiogram peculiar for that species of animal. Peculiar characteristics that distinguish the electrocardiograms of different species of animals are given in this chapter.

An electrocardiographic unit has a compact electrocardiograph machine, power cord, patient cable, thermal recording ECG paper roll, and conducting gel.

Electrocardiographic Unit

The Electrocardiograph is a sensitive galvanometric device that is capable of recording difference in electric potential up to 1 mV (1/1000 of a volt). The machine has a voltage meter and amplifier combined with a strip recording device (Fig.5) to provide a permanent record. Various basic features viz. running (paper) speed of the machine , sensitivity, lead selector, off/on switch, f ilter etc are displayed on the screen (Fig. 5). Electrocardiographic machine can record electrocardiogram at the paper speed of 25 or 50 mm per second as per our selection. The sensitivity switch controls amplitude of the waves. The amplitude or sensitivity can be selected as 0.5,1. or 2.

Electrocardiography-A noninvasive Technique

Electrocardiography is a non-invasive diagnostic technique routinely used to examine the electrical activity of the heart in health and diseases. It is an important tool for the clinical evaluation of the heart. The technique provides important information regarding heart rate, heart rhythm, impulse formation and its conduction. Heart size can also be assessed to some extent in humans and dogs. The process of electrocardiography leads to generation of an electrocardiogram as a consequence of depolarization and repolarization of heart muscle cells during each heartbeat.

Key Points

• Animals can experience varying levels of electric shock. Lightning typically kills animals instantaneously and causes them to fall to the ground without struggle.Most electric shock deaths are caused by cardiac or respiratory arrest.

• Animals often recover from minutes to several hours, rarely going unconscious. Residual nervous system effects, including sadness, paraplegia, and increased cutaneous sensitivity to painless stimuli, can last for days, weeks, or even months.

Introduction

Lightning strikes, broken transmission lines, malfunctioning electrical circuits, or an animal chewing on an electrical cable can all cause an animal to be injured or killed by high-voltage electrical currents. Lightning strikes are seasonal and occur in thunderstorm-prone regions. Caution should always be maintained when investigating probable electrocution situations because the source of the electrification, such as broken transmission wires, may still be present.

Principle

To retrieve and purify any specific DNA fragment from an agarose gel slice; the expected yield is from 50-75% of the amount in the gel slice.

Time required

Restriction digest - minimum of 2 hours

Electrophoresis - approx. 4 hours

Elution - 2-5 hours depending on fragment size

DNA Purification -2 hours

Abstract

Increasing global demand for ‘fresh-like’ processed food products has forced food industries to investigate into various minimal processing techniques. Food processing in general has been associated with thermal processing, alone or in various combination with chemical and mechanical preservation and processing methods. However, thermal processing methods are energy intensive in nature and tend to reduce product quality and freshness at the cost of shelf-life gain. Advance technique such as microwave, radio-frequency and freeze drying do maintain the product quality but their implementation at industrial scale involves high operational and maintenance cost. An ideal processing method therefore would be one that can process food products without losing its quality, is energy efficient and is easily scalable. In this chapter, we discuss about ‘Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) Drying’, which is can be classified as a minimal processing technique. The heat and mass transfer principles involved in EHD drying have been extensively discussed and so has been the key consideration for designing an EHD drying system.

ELECTROLYTE BALANCE

Electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and chloride are substances that dissolve into posi tively and negatively charged particles when mixed with a liquid. The interaction between these substances, referred to as the ‘dietary electrolyte balance (DEB), can be influenced by either the electrolyte itself or the additional salt source used.

Dietary inclusion of potassium and chloride has shown positive effects on heat-stressed broilers. Among various salt options for broiler diets, sodium bicarbonate and potassium chloride have been identified as the optimal choices, especially during hot summer conditions.

Electrolyte balance is often quantified by the uncomplicated equation Na + K – Cl expressed in terms of mEq/kg of diet. An ideal overall dietary equilibrium ranging from 240 to 260 mEq/kg is generally deemed optimal for normal physiological functioning. The body’s buffering systems play a pivotal role in maintaining a close-to-normal physiological pH, thus preventing deviations in electrolyte levels. The principal function of electrolytes pertains to the regulation of body water and ionic equilibrium. Consequently, the requisites for elements like sodium, potassium, and chloride can’t be viewed in isolation; it’s the collective equilibrium that holds significance. The term “electrolyte balance,” synonymous with acid-base balance, is influenced by three factors:

1. The equilibrium and proportion of these electrolytes in the diet.

2. Endogenous production of acids.

3. The pace of renal clearance.

Electromagnetic and advanced heating technologies offer rapid and energy-efficient alternatives to conventional food processing. These systems use microwaves, radio frequency, electrical resistance, infrared radiation, lasers, photonic energy and dielectric heating to generate heat within food or directly at its surface. Faster and more uniform energy transfer can improve microbial inactivation, shorten processing time and reduce damage to nutrients and sensory characteristics. The chapter explains the principles, mechanisms, applications and nutritional effects of microwave, radio-frequency, ohmic and infrared heating. It also considers laser-based and photonic techniques. Particular attention is given to heating uniformity, product properties, equipment control, energy efficiency and the prevention of underprocessed areas.

Diagnosis of plant diseases require some knowledge of light microscopy to examine infected tissues for the presence of plant pathogens. Most of the pathogens and the diseases caused by them can be identified quickly by using different methods such as section or cutting of infected tissue, squashes of scrapping of plant surface. Homecare, the detail study enquires ultrastructural examination of the pathogen.. Electron microscope rely on a beam of electrons produced from a hot filament (e.g. tungsten) and its power of resolution is much greater than light microscope. Electron microscope are of two type

The oxygen content may be measured either chemically or electronically. The normal chemical method is the so-called Winkler method which is a titration method, consisting of adding certain chemicals to the water and observing a colour change which will be directly related to the oxygen concentration.

INTRODUCTION

Knowledge Resource Centres play a very important role in this fast changing e-environment of publishing. Their role includes identification and selection of information, its organization and management, storage, retrieval and dissemination to right users at the right time at right place at right price and in right format. The dawn of information revolution is considered to be one of the marvels of 21st century. It is well known that paper and printing were originated in China in the 2^nd and 5^th century of Christian era, respectively.(1) There is a “ wordless heaven book”, “ published in oral or paper less form among the Chinese. The word less book is actually an adaptation and extension of “the song of baked dough by Pie-wen Lu” (2) of the 14^th century. The “elite” in every generation have access to the timelessly flexibly text of the heaven-book to interpret the contents and to predict, accordingly, the great events of the world, particularly when it is in chaos. The world refers to, of course, the “middle kingdom,” which is China in Chinese. Although the work is only a legend, the wordless heaven-book can be considered as the pioneer prototype of modern electronic publishing and as the earliest idea of the recently developed hypertext.

Another classic concept of e-publishing can be traced in Gullivers Travels by Jonathan Swift first published in 1726. The work has a passage describing a writing machine developed by the Lagadonians in the Grand Academy of Lagado. The Lagadonian writing machine used the method of a fixed syntactic structure and the filling in of that structure with contents by a random procedure (3).

BSTRACT

This paper discusses the various issues and concerns about the electronic information resources, which includes mainly such as e-journals, e-books and e-databases etc. In this digital era, the library should be well equipped with trendy facilities & resources within the sort of books, manuscripts, technical journals, standards, conference proceedings, theses, reports, databases, and all the electronic versions of information resources. Various issues and concerns, which are related with the electronic resources and their management is discussed in detailed in this paper.

Keywords: ICT, Electronic resources, e-journals, Electronic resource management.

1. Introduction

Libraries serve as global repositories of knowledge, like to giant treasure boxes. But librarians are faced with a lot of work as more and more things become digital. Electronic Resource Management Systems (ERMS) can help with that (Prajapati, 2016). These are incredibly useful tools that have completely transformed the way libraries handle digital content. The main goal of ERMS is to simplify librarians' lives. They support the acquisition of fresh digital materials, manage subscriptions and licenses, and even provide online resource locators (Anbu et al., 2013). They essentially act as librarians' superhero sidekicks, ensuring that everything works seamlessly in the digital realm. ERMS play a major role in keeping everything organized. They support librarians in maintaining inventory, determining who can use what, and determining when to update it (Mangrum & Ellen Pozzebon, 2012). Libraries are able to ensure that everyone has access to what they need while adhering to all access regulations in this way. However, ERMS aren't limited to library use. They're also excellent for any library user. By making it simple to locate what you're looking for in the library's digital collection, ERMS addresses that. They keep everything organized so you can quickly get to the essentials (Prajapati, 2016).The key component that keeps contemporary libraries running well is ERMS. They make it easier for librarians to handle electronic resources and for users like you and me to find what we're looking for. Thus, keep in mind that ERMS are the unsung heroes who make it all happen the next time you're navigating your library's digital world.

Introduction

Due to the advent of new technologies now-a-days e-resources became more popular and essential. The information technology has made it possible the availability and accessibility of e-resources. The e-resources are made available both online and offline. Further some are free and some are paid. The free e-resources can be accessed anywhere and anytime on the discretion of the user. But for the paid e-resources to get comprehensive access by using best possible tools and techniques is the library. Multiple resources in the present electronic environment can be seamlessly integrated with a single login gateway which makes is user friendly. Further the explosive growth in network connectivity and rapid advances in computing power systems have altered the speed of communications. Recent advances in the information world have transformed the role of libraries in disseminating information to users. Increase in the number of users and their different needs have made modern libraries apply new communication technology. As a result of this there is a worldwide need and trend to collect, organize, manage, protect and distribute information in digital form.

INTRODUCTION

The goal of the libraries is to provide an effective combination of print, non-print and electronic resources, and the integration of the use of these resources in support of teaching, learning and research at the university. Electronic resources, however, pose challenges not encountered with the acquisitions of traditional library materials, such as access, interface, technical support and licensing. The libraries therefore need to formulate separate Electronic Resources Collection Development policy to address these issues. The purpose of this policy is to provide guidelines in choosing appropriate electronic resources and to establish consistency and priorities in managing this important part of the libraries’ collection.

ELECTRONIC RESOURCES

“Electronic resources” refer to those materials that require computer access, whether through microcomputer, mainframe, or other types of computers, and that may either be locally mounted or accessed remotely via the Internet. These resources cover both free Internet resources and electronic resources purchased or licensed by the libraries from a commercial source, a non-profit organization, a professional organization or any external institution.

INTRODUCTION

Providing access to the nascent information is the main motto of the library. Electronic resources management (ERM) is the latest phenomenon in the field of Library and Information Science. In a nutshell it is responsible for the evaluation, selection, pricing, securing, maintenance and provision of electronic resources to the users. As electronic resource collections continue to expand, allied workflows and processes encompass growth in complexity. Advances in printing technology and information communication technology (ICT) have resulted in transforming the publishing industry into e-publishing. It has resulted in considerable impact on the library collection building process in terms of print collection, electronic and online resources.

Now a days many reputed publishers have started e-publishing and many of them are now issuing their publications in electronic version besides conventional printing. The libraries are upgrading their collection in terms of documentary resources and electronic resources and infrastructure to sustain in the fast moving knowledge society.

Principle

Different ions migrate at different speed dictated by their size and by the amount of charges they carry. As a result, different ions can be separated from each other by electrophoresis. The magnitude of the electric force F exerted on the charged particle when subjected to electrophoresis is product of the charge q of the particle and the electric field E generated between the two electrodes.

Electrophoresis is the migration of particles under the influence of a direct electric current. There are two requirements for this process to be carried out. First the particles to be separated should be charged or at least should accept charge. Proteins, amino acids, nucleotides etc. conform to this requirement. Second, the medium used for separating the compounds also should carry charge. The mobilities of the ions depend on the nature of the electrolyte solution, the concentration and temperature. The cations and anions move in opposite directions with the cations moving towards the anode and the anions towards the cathode.

Introduction

Gel electrophoresis is a technique for separating charged molecules with different sizes. Two kinds of gels are commonly used: agarose and polyacrylamide. Agarose gels can be applied to a wider range of sizes than polyacrylamide gels.  By using standard agarose electrophoresis, nuclei acids up to 50 kb may be separated. If Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis is used, the upper limit can be extended to 10 Mb. Polyacrylamide gels may separate nucleic acids that differ in length by only 1 nucleotide if their length is less than 500 bp (Sambrook et al., 1989).

Principle

The principle of Electrophoresis involves the motion of a particle in a fluid medium, where the gravitational attraction (on a flowing liquid) is the sedimenting force, and the frictional force is the opposing force and is proportional to the velocity of the particle. These forces balance each other acting in opposite directions and hence balance each other. This will lead to the uniform motion of the particle in the mobile liquid medium (i.e. the particle moves at constant velocity). In case the external field is an electric field instead of a gravitational field, a macromolecule will respond to the external field in two ways. In case the molecule is charged, it will migrate in an electric field to the electrode of opposite charge. Under this principle the technique of electrophoresis functions.

All electrophoresis operations are governed by the principle:

Electrophoresis is a method of separating out large molecule ( DNA or protein). An electric current is passed through a medium containing the molecules, and each molecule travels at a different rate depending on its electrical charge, size and shape. Separation by electrophoresis is based on these differences. In electrophoresis, agarose and acrylamide gels are used for electrophoresis of nucleic acids and proteins.

What is Gel Electrophoresis?

A gel is a solid form. The term electrophoresis describes the migration of charged particle under the influence of an electric field. Electro refers to the energy of electricity. Phoresis, from the Greek verb phoros, means “to carry across.” Thus, gel electrophoresis refers to the technique in which molecules are forced across a span of gel, motivated by an electrical current. Activated electrodes at either end of the gel provide the driving force. A molecule’s properties determine how rapidly an electric field can move the molecule through a gelatinous medium.

Electrophoresis is an analytical method frequently used in molecular biology and medicine. It is applied for the separation and characterization of proteins, nucleic acids and subcellular-sized particles like viruses and small organelles. Its principle is that the charged particles of a sample migrate in an applied electrical field. An electric current is passed through a medium containing the molecules, and each molecule travels at a different rate depending on its electrical charge, size and shape. Separation by electrophoresis is based on these differences. In electrophoresis, agarose and acrylamide gels are used for electrophoresis of nucleic acids and proteins.

What is Gel Electrophoresis?

A gel is a solid form. The term electrophoresis describes the migration of charged particle under the influence of an electric field. Electro refers to the energy of electricity. Phoresis, from the Greek verb phoros, means “to carry across.” Thus, gel electrophoresis refers to the technique in which molecules are forced across a span of gel, motivated by an electrical current. Activated electrodes at either end of the gel provide the driving force. A molecule’s properties determine how rapidly an electric field can move the molecule through a gelatinous medium.

Electrophoresis is an important separation technique for the charged molecules. Biologically important molecules, such as amino acids, peptides, proteins nucleotides, nucleic acids which carry electrical charge as they possess certain ionizable functional groups may be separated and identified from a mixture with the help of this technique. Some compounds that are non-polar in nature and do not possess any charge may be transformed to charge carrying derivatives. Thus, phosphate derivatives of carbohydrates may be separated and characterized utilizing electrophoretic techniques.

Introduction 
Building on our extensive exploration of how individual weather parameters intricately influence every facet of crop life and the diverse methodologies employed to evaluate these responses, we now embark on a journey into the mathematical heart of crop science. This chapter, Elementary Crop Growth Models,” will introduce you to the foundational concepts and simpler mathematical frameworks used to quantify, simulate, and ultimately predict how crops grow under varying environmental conditions. In the upcoming sections, we’ll delve into the fundamental building blocks of crop modeling. You’ll discover how these elementary models simplify the complex biological processes occurring within a plant to create manageable, yet insightful, representations. Unlike highly detailed mechanistic models, which require vast amounts of data and computational power, elementary models focus on capturing the most essential relationships between environmental drivers (like solar radiation, temperature, and water) and key aspects of crop growth, such as biomass accumulation or phenological progression. These simpler models serve as a crucial stepping stone. They allow us to grasp core principles of crop-weather interaction in a quantifiable way, providing practical tools for initial assessments, quick predictions, and conceptual understanding, without getting lost in the overwhelming complexity of every single physiological pathway. By understanding these foundational models, you’ll gain a clearer perspective on how agricultural scientists begin to predict the future performance of our food crops, even as the climate around them continues to evolve

Introduction

The basic physiological structures of mammary glands in all species are almost same and are located externally in order to fulfill the milk requirement of neonates after parturition. The process of secretion of milk from the mammary glands is known as lacto genesis. Milk provides an almost complete nutrition to neonates from birth till weaning period. It is a complex mixture of various constituents like:

Lipids such a striacyl glycerols(TAG),phospholipids,cholesterols and other sterols, free fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins

Carbohydrates such as lactose, oligosaccharides

Proteins such a scaseins, α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, immunoglobulin’s, bovine serum albumin, lactoferrin, lysozyme, enzymes, hormones and growth factors

Non-protein nitrogenous compounds like urea, creatine, creatinine, uric acid and amino acids

Major and minor minerals, water-soluble vitamins and cells (leucocytes, macrophages, and epithelial cells).

5.1 Elements of Landscape Gardens

5.1.1 Introduction

Elements of a garden are the basic units of any visual design which form its structure and convey visual messages. Elements are based on the art principles of landscaping. Process of landscape design includes concepts and elements of landscape designing. Generally, elements of a garden are divided into 2 types

The plant can absorb more than sixty elements as revealed from the plant tissue analysis, still a few elements is considered essential for the growth and nutrition of the plants. The deficiency of any one of the essential elements can stop completing the life cycle of the plants which is reflected on the yield of the crop. The growth of the plant which is expressed in terms of dry weight, length ,diameter etc. are interlinked with the plant available nutrients of soils.

3.1 Essential Nutrients

The essential elements are those elements which are required for growth and nutrition of the plants. There are 17 elements known to be essential nutrients for plants. The essential elements are classified as micro and macronutrients depending upon the requirement of the crop. Among the naturally occurring elements, eighteen elements are considered essential to plants. These are: C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, Cl, Ni, Co. The elements which are found in different sources are required to be in available forms (Table 3.1) for growth and nutrition of the plants.

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.     What are the different phagocytic cells ?
Ans.     The phagocytic cells of mammals belong to two complementary systems (1) The myeloid system consists of cells that are rapidly phagocytic but incapable of sustained effect. (2) Mononuclear phagocytic system act more slowly but capable of repeated phagocytosis.

Q.2.     How 3 types of granulocytes are differentiated ?
Ans.    Three types of granulocytes are distinguished by the staining property of their granules. Cells whose granules take up basic dyes such as haematoxylin (a blue dye) are called basophils, whose granules take up acidic dyes such as eosin (a red dye) are called eosinophils and those that take up neither basic nor acidic dyes are called neutrophils.

Elephant foot yam, also known as suran or jimmikand, is gaining popularity due to its high yield potential and culinary qualities. It is grown in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Kerala, and Maharashtra in India, as well as in the north-eastern states of Odisha, Tamilnadu, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. This crop is being embraced for commercial production in northern and eastern India, thanks to the advent of a high yielding, non-acrid variety. Elephant foot yam has an output potential of 50-60 tonnes per hectare. Elephant foot yam is a tropical tuber crop that has been grown for generations in tropical Asia. It is gathered for its edible corms, tubers, and smooth petioles, which all contain important minerals.

Elephant foot yam is an underground stem tuber belonging to the family Araceae, one of the most popular tuber crops, extensively used as a favourite vegetable by millions of people in India. It has both nutritional and medicinal value and is usually consumed as cooked vegetable. It has high dry matter production capability per unit area than most of the other vegetables. Elephant foot yam is a remunerative and profitable stem tuber crop. The crop is gaining popularity due to its shade tolerance, easiness in cultivation, high productivity, less incidence of pests and diseases, steady demand and reasonably good price.

5.1 Introduction

In recent decades, human induced changes in climate of the earth have the focus of scientific and social attention. The most imminent of this is the increased concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) namely, carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) in the atmosphere. The concentration of CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O have increased markedly by 30%, 145% and 15%, respectively as a result of human activity since 1750, the era of Industrial Revolutions (IPCC, 2007). Between 1750 and 2005, the concentration of CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O in the atmosphere has increased from 280 to 379 ppm, 715 to 1774 ppb and from 270 to 319 ppb, respectively (IPCC, 2007). However, there was a steep increase during the recent years i.e. 70% increase of GHGs between 1970 and 2004.

Immunoassays rely on the ability of an antibody to recognize and bind a specific macromolecule in what might be a complex mixture of macromolecules. In immunology the particular macromolecule bound by an antibody is referred to as an antigen and the area on an antigen to which the antibody binds is called an epitope.

In some cases an immunoassay may use an antigen to detect for the presence of antibodies, which recognize that antigen, in a solution. In other words, in some immunoassays, the analyte may be an antibody rather than an antigen.

As aquaculture expands rapidly across states like Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and West Bengal, the demand for accurate and timely disease detection methods has intensified. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) and other serological tools have emerged as critical assets in pathogen surveillance and management in fish and shrimp farming systems.
ELISA, widely used in Indian diagnostics laboratories, enables the detection of pathogen-specific antigens or host antibodies with high sensitivity and throughput. Its capacity to analyze multiple samples simultaneously and deliver quantitative results makes it particularly suitable for large-scale disease monitoring. Both indirect and sandwich ELISA formats are employed, tailored to the diagnostic goal—whether it is detecting the pathogen itself or assessing the host’s immune response.
In indirect ELISA, fish serum samples are screened for antibodies against key pathogens. This format is instrumental in vaccine efficacy studies and epidemiological surveys. For instance, aquaculture centers in Kerala and Tamil Nadu use indirect ELISA to track immune responses to Aeromonas hydrophila and Koi Herpesvirus (KHV) in ornamental and carp species. On the other hand, sandwich ELISA is utilized for direct antigen detection in tissues and fluids, and is applied in shrimp hatcheries for diseases such as White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) and Yellow Head Virus (YHV), supported by ICAR and MPEDA programs.
Other serological techniques also find relevance in Indian aquaculture. Agglutination assays, especially slide agglutination, offer rapid and cost-effective field diagnostics. These are applied in the detection of Edwardsiella tarda and Streptococcus iniae in tilapia and catfish. Latex agglutination further enhances rapid bacterial identification at the farm or lab level. Immunodiffusion techniques, such as Ouchterlony double diffusion, though less sensitive, are still used in resource-limited areas for detecting fungal pathogens like Ichthyophonus and Saprolegnia.

Teaching and research in anatomy is mainly based on cadaver dissections. A sound knowledge of anatomy is essential from the beginning of veterinary education and the knowledge obtained through dissection of animal body is an indispensable part of the veterinary science.
History of embalming
Embalming is the art and science of preserving the animal by treating with chemicals to forestall decomposition. Embalming destroys the colloid nature of the proteins and neutralizes the active centres of the molecules forming many cross linkages of adjacent protein molecules. Proteins are thus converted to high molecular inert solid materials that can no longer serve as food for bacteria or as a substrate for enzyme action. Embalming preserves the body from decay. The embalmed bodies are stored in tanks containing a fluid composed of formalin, phenol, thymol and rock salt in water in varying proportions.
Claudius Galen (130-200 A.D) did dissections of animals such as the pig or monkey. Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519) a pioneer anatomist introduced anatomical drawings. During 15th-16th century the motive was to advance the techniques for the preservation of the dead and to study detailed anatomy by dissections. Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) believed that dissection was necessary to find out how bodies worked. His lectures were based purely on his observations. He carried out dissection on human cadavers as well as animals to understand Anatomy. As an Anatomist he represents the end of the middle ages obscurantism and the beginning of modern Anatomy and scientific thinking. He is considered the father of modern Anatomy. In 17th century Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) opened up new horizons

8.1 Design of Canal Embankments

 There are two aspects of canal embankment design.

 (i) The general requirement, such as free board, dowel, service/inspection road, drainage of banks etc. The aspect of free board is discussed in Para

8.2 to 8.3 and that of service/ inspection road in Para

 8.4 and drainage of banks in Para 8.5 in this chapter.

 (ii) Safe design of embankment i.e. Hydraulic and structural requirement.

It includes stability of inner and outer slopes, Structural safe design of inner cut slopes in deep cuttings in different types of soils/rocks of varying nature and ground water conditions. Stability of slopes may include drainage, so as to prevent rock falls/debris in canal. For outer slopes in embankment (filling sections) hydraulic gradient/pharetic line, toe drains etc, similar to the earthen dams, on different types of soil/rock foundation with respect to varying ground water level conditions are important.

The canal embankments in filling may even fail through its foundations by sloughing or liquefactions. All these aspects of canal embankments are discussed in this chapter in Para 8.4 to 8.9.

I. FILL UPS

1. The developing ovule is commonly attached to the placenta by the _____.
2. The scar on the ovule made where the funiculus detaches at maturity is known as the _____.
3. The point where the integuments meet at the nuclear apex is _____.
4. Opposite to the micropyle, the region of integumentary origin and attachment is called _____.
5. Between the chalaza and the hilum is an area called _____.
6. _____ is an example for species with developed perisperm.

Introduction
The urinary system comprises of two kidneys, two ureters, a urinary bladder, and a urethra) The latter is shared by the genital organs.
• The urinary system develops from the intermediate mesoderm
• Three different kidney systems are formed in vertebrates--pronephros, mesonephros, and metanephros.
Pronephros: - Forms a duct that empties into the cloaca- Pronephric tubules connect each body segment with the coelom (body cavity) Pronephric tubules never become functional in mammals
Mesonephros: - Pronephric duct becomes mesonephric duct Distal to the pronephric tubules appear mesonephric tubules that surround tufts of blood vessels (glomeruli), but no loop of Henle is formed Blood is transported to mesonephric tubules, filtrate is transported to the mesonephric duct and finally to the urogenital portion of the cloaca
Metanephros: - Metanephric bud (ureteric bud) Metanephric blastema
• Bud gives rise to the ureter, the pelvis of the kidney, and collecting tubules.
• Blastema gives rise to nephrons.
The internal structure of the kidney varies among species. It is determined by the number and size of calyces which branch from the renal pelvis. Each calyx forms the base of a renal lobe (renal pyramid). All mammalian kidneys begin as multipyramidal (multilobular) structures, but lobules fuse to varying degrees, depending upon the species. (Note, this multilobulation is maintained in the histological structures)

Bone is the only tissue in the body able to heal without microscopical scarring. On the other hand fracture healing is a slow process causing long immobilization periods with consequently high costs for fracture healing giving rise to delayed healing, fibrous healing or non-healing with subsequent problems for both, the patient and the orthopedic surgeon. Fracture healing is complex phenomenon which involves numerous cells, regulators of cell function and biochemical interactions in the repair process. The healing potential of bone, in a fracture model is influenced by a variety of biochemical, biomechanical, cellular, hormonal and pathological mechanisms. A continuous occurring state of bone deposition, resorption and remodeling facilitates the healing process.

Biodegradable and bioinert ceramic materials such as hydroxyapatite (HA), tri-calcium phosphate (TCP), aluminum-calcium-phosphate (ALCAP) ceramics provides scaffold to support the attachment and migration of newly formed bone cells into the osseous defect and also help in formation of a vascular network through the newly formed bone. Bioceramic also act as a carrier to deliver stem cells for osteogenesis.

Specific bone-inductive proteins/growth factors can induce bone formation and healing in vivo. These morphogens are therefore, to be an ideal alternative to autogenous bone grafts. These findings initiating intensive research into bone regeneration orchestrated by putative soluble signals and lead to the discovery and identification of an entirely novel family of protein initiators collectively called the bone morphogenic protein (BMPs), which belong to transforming growth factors-ß (TGF- ß) super family. These growth factors might possess a biological activity that is site and tissue specific in the induction of bone formation. Different growth factors have been demonstrated to possess osteoinductive and fracture healing properties.

Stem cells have therapeutic potential in the realm of orthopaedic surgery because of their capacity to self-renew and differentiate into various types of mature cells and tissues, including bone. Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are pluripotent cells derived from the inner cell mass of pre-implantation embryos and represent embryonic precursor cells that give rise to any cell type in the embryo. Specifically, it has been shown that ES cells can differentiate into osteogenic cells under selective culture conditions. These osteogenic cells are capable of in vitro producing bone nodules in three dimensional scaffolds.