eChapters

Education: Education is the production of desirable changes in the behaviour of the people. It is the production of desirable changes in human behaviour in knowledge (things known), attitudes (things felt) and skills (things done), in all of them or in one or more of them.

Behaviour: Includes three components viz., knowledge, attitude and skill

Knowledge (Cognitive): It includes facts, concepts, principles and relationship.

Attitude (Affective): An attitude can be loosely defined as a feeling towards some object, person and situation or idea.

A woman is the backbone of the family. The Self-reliance of women is the first step in the nation’s development. For generations, women have fought for their existence. Women’s softness and humility have developed new dimensions of self-reliance; as a result, the image of a woman with a veil of weakness has ended.

The position of women in ancient times was excellent. The most significant decline occurred in the status of women during the Mughal period. 

Rural development is transforming the lives of the rural people by creating awareness and mobilizing the people for self-help and pastoral help. Rural development is not new in India, where more than 70% of the people live in villages, their primary source of livelihood being agriculture, animal husbandry etc. Any area’s development initially occurs when changes happen in the home and family. Rural development focuses on the holistic development of the rural population by helping them to recognize their needs & interests and guiding them to meet them. This would result in personal, social, economic, and spiritual development.

Empowerment in the women’s development context can be defined as defining, challenging, and overcoming the hurdles in women’s life. She enhances her ability to mould her life, personality, and surrounding environment. The buzzword “empowerment” synchronises with women metaphorically when we think of women empowerment. Such has been the issue and its importance in society today. However, why it matters so much can be attributed to “constraints”. 

s per the advancement in technology, our society is steadily moving towards adapting the new ordinary technologies for their normal affirms of life. While many’s daily lives are far from ordinary, one critical enabler for humans to survive and sustain their livelihood has been the accelerated adoption of digital technologies, especially in the last two years. We have witnessed how things happened because of the emerging technology in various sectors: education, business, communication, interaction, socialization, professional work, agriculture, etc. This will be the norm for the new normal and the “Gig Economy” evolution. Technology disruption has helped almost everyone in their many walks of life. When we consider the rural women at large, technology has, directly and indirectly, helped each procure food and other commodities to manage their livelihood. 

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is generally a policy to assess its impact on society and estimate its societal responsibilities. The CSR plan of any organization ensures that it complies with government norms, their investments in respect of growth, development of weaker sections and the environment. CSR’s primary requisite should be sustainable, involving interventions that an organization can justify without negatively affecting its profit goals.

ountains occupy twenty-four per cent of the global land surface area (about 25 million km²) and are home to twelve per cent of the world’s population (GTOS, 2008). Water is present in snow, glaciers, wetlands, and rivers in the mountains. They supply watersheds by providing groundwater recharge to hill communities and communities living in vast basin areas (Hua, 2009). Whatever happens in these mountains affect nearly 1.2 billion people, one-fifth of the world’s population living in the river basins, and up to three billion indirectly in food and energy production. Despite harbouring some of nature’s richest natural resources, mountains are home to some of the world’s poorest people, many of whom are marginalized subsistence farmers. These communities living in the mountain region have hardly benefited from the ‘green revolution’ and global economic growth.

People worldwide are getting affected by the changing climate and associated natural disasters. These climate changes affect both genders differently. Changing climate is not often thought of as an issue related to gender, yet it is increasingly evident that women are more affected by its impacts. Women of all ages are more vulnerable due to persistent cultural norms and low socioeconomic status. Women’s domestic roles often make them inconsistent users of nature-based resources such as firewood, water, and forest products. When these resources become scarcer, they experience an increased work burden. This is proved by many researchers that women in developing countries share the primary responsibility of providing basic needs like food (to feed) and water for their families; this is the cause behind their dependency on natural resources.

Although women work in household chores, agricultural activities, factories, and different workplaces in days of yore, their valuable work is still not recognized as a financial entity (Kathrivel and Sivakumar, 2003). The multiple roles performed by ‘Nari shakti share many working hours, but financial terms are off the records. Women’s power at construction work is greater utilization as labour and their daily routine employment. 

The decadal Census, 2011 puts India’s population at 121.08 crores (cr.), split into 83.37 cr. of rural and 37.71 cr. of urban inhabitants. Of the total population, the working population was 48.18 Cr. comprising primary workers at 36.25 cr.

Regarding gender analysis, the male and female populations counted 62.32 and 58.75 crores, respectively. The female population was rural-dominated,with 42.77 crores living in villages and 10.51 crores in urban centres.The Census also showed that the women accounted for a substantive size of the working population, 14.99 crores (12.19 rural+2.80 urban). The primary workers of this female working population were as high as 8.93 crores, with 6.77 crores living in rural India and 2.15 crores in urban centres. The details may be seen in Table 1.

Women have been seen as necessary as a man. The status of the women and the work progress of the women have been seen as a nation’s overall progress. Without the penetration of women in socio-economic and political activities, the country is considered to stagnate. Still, the devaluation of women commences at birth with the preference for male offspring. This continues through childhood conditioning to the submissive and, later on, the subservient role required of them in the marital home.

The informal associations of individuals who come close to seeking ways to enhance their living conditions are known as Self Help Groups (SHGs). They are generally self-governed and peer-controlled. An NGO or Agency usually governs people of comparable economic and social backgrounds to resolve their issues and improve their living conditions. It is a local committee of 10 to 20 women or men between 18 to 40 years. It acts as an intermediary financial committee. Self-help groups are a gaggle of each person on daily wages, and among that group, one person collects the cash and provides the case desired to the person in need.

India has experienced marked changes, both at international and national levels. Technological progress, ICT penetration in rural and urban areas, and changes in current government policies have resulted in changes in the country’s social structure and power relations. The government initiated various programmes like Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK), Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA), Mahila e-Haat, and Support to Training & Employment Programme (STEP) etc. are there to improve the state of rural women. 

Pulses are widely acknowledged as superfoods, three times the protein in rice and double in wheat. Besides, they are also rich in complex carbohydrates, micronutrients, protein and B-vitamins and minerals like folate, iron, calcium, magnesium, zinc and potassium. High iron content in some pulses also minimizes the risk of anaemia. Long storability without loss of nutritional value, low prices, and broader availability make pulses an affordable source of minerals, and protein, thus contributing to food security at all levels of society in India. Besides human nutrition, pulse crops are also utilized as fodder and fuel for farm households.

Almost half of the population in the world comprises women, indicating that women are at par with men, but the issue is ‘Is she really at par with men in the status too?’ Numerous studies have drawn attention to the fact that women are half marginalised in every society; they have not yet got their share. The concern over women’s problems started with the establishment of the United Nations in 1945, which led to the declaration of 1975 as ‘International Women’s Year’ and the years between 1975- 1985 as the UN Decade for Women. For the first time, the attention was focused on the unnoticed and forgotten halves, who by birth were women, performing 2/3^rd of the world’s work, receiving 1/10th of the world’s income and owning less than 1/100^th of the world’s property (Rath, 1996). 

Rural Indian women are extensively involved in agricultural activities. In rural Uttarakhand, women contribute about 90 per cent of the total work in agriculture and animal care. Women’s participation rate in the State’s economy is much higher than in several states and the national average. In Uttarakhand, women’s role ranges from managers to landless labourers. Women’s average contribution is 55% to 66% of the total labour in overall farm production, with percentages higher in certain regions. From a demographic perspective, nearly 17% of households are women, higher than the national data (~11%). The main reason for this shift is migration other than divorce, separation or widowhood.

Our country today is considered independent. We have the freedom to live by our choices, and there is no discrimination between women and men. Nowadays, women and men get equal opportunities to earn their livelihoods. Women’s work is restricted to the households and jobs outside the home to contribute to the family’s economy. As industrialization occurs, the demand for labour and employees is also increasing. This has created opportunities for both women and men to work equally.

The core concept of empowerment is the idea of power and thought of control. Empowerment is the process of strengthening, encouraging, obtaining opportunities, and mobilizing assets and resources for the welfare of individuals, groups or masses. Over the past two decades, discourse and focus on the concept of empowerment have steadily and relentlessly increased within international development discourse. Empowerment has evolved to develop a more extensive physical and mental well-being, freedom from domestic violence, unpaid work and reproductive health. However, the wealthy body of work has wrangled the thought of empowerment of women.

Women have contributed significantly and selflessly since ancient times to uplifting and bettering any nation. A literate woman builds a country; truth cannot be closer than that. Women have always carried the burden of being a wife, mothers, sisters and daughters, all on their own magnificently. They are leaders, decision-makers, entrepreneurs and service providers in different fields. The valuable contributions of women are significant to the well-being of families and communities and the economic growth of any society. Rural women have tremendous potential for developing culture, and their leadership, participation, and education will help eradicate poverty and hunger.

Introduction

Women and girls in rural areas bear the brunt of poverty, feminisation and its intergenerational ramifications and the effects of desertification, extreme weather events, and natural disasters. Women are most at risk in conflict situations, as migrants and refugees and in humanitarian crises. Rural women have higher rates of disability, have inadequate or non-existent support services, and are stigmatised. Despite being the leading food growers and processors, the paradox is that they are often the last to consume the nutritious and healthy food they need to stay strong.

7.1 Introduction

The occurrence of extreme weather events like drought and flood is increasing in Bihar due to climate change. Bihar receives nearly 80% of annual rainfall during June to September which is quantitatively enough for growing most of the crops. However, aberration in temporal and spatial distribution of rainfall makes the crops vulnerable to drought as well as flood. Rainfall is the most important factor for planning of crop production in rainfed areas. The information on annual, seasonal and weekly rainfall of a region is helpful to design different agricultural operations like field preparation, sowing, irrigation, fertilizer application as well as overall crop planning (Singh et al., 2008). Zone I and zone II of Bihar are receiving too much rainfall which causes flood in this region whereas zone III B is identified as rainfed region which has low, erratic and uncertain rainfall pattern with frequent dry spells during the monsoon season. Hence kharif cropping is tricky operation in this region and sudden crop failures is a common phenomenon due to frequent dry spell or early withdrawal of monsoon. In India many scientists studied on rainfall probability pattern (Suchit et al., 2012) and they concluded that rainfall occurrence is certain at greater than or equal to 80 % probability, while 50% probability is the medium limit of certainty and may involve dry spell risk. Based on these climatic and probability factors, the study was carried out for four different locations situated in different agro climatic zones of Bihar for interlinking the rainfall probability pattern with the crop planning pattern in those regions.

6.1 Introduction

One of the key challenges in the 21^st century is that Agromet Advisory Services (AAS) have to respond to an unpredictable and changing climate. In India Gramin Krishi Mausam Sewa (GKMS) is the umbrella project for Agromet Advisory Services (AAS) and it intends to link AAS to different sources of knowledge and innovations to respond to the climate change at root level farmers. The main aim of GKMS is to create effective, efficient and synergistic linkages to improve the delivery of these AAS to the farmers. GKMS works under the frame work of India Meteorological Department (IMD) which seeks to enhance the livelihood of every Indian farmer. 

5.1 Introduction

Weather is one of the most important factors which determine success or failure of agricultural production. It effects every growth phases and development of plant. During the growing period of the crop, any variability in the weather condition such as delay in monsoon, excessive rainfall, drought, flood, heat or cold wave affects the crop growth and finally reduces the quality and quantity of crop yield. These losses due to weather hazards can be reduced by taking proper crop management in time and by applying accurate weather forecast. Weather forecast also provides guidance for selection of crops and varieties best suited to the local climatic condition. 

4.1 Introduction

The livestock/poultry have great capability for climatic adaptation and acclimatization. However in an open environmental condition their overall well-being and efficiency depends on day-to- day weather conditions. While certain breeds of livestock and poultry are considerably flexible to adjust themselves with the varying weather conditions, the others may have little adjustability. This has led to the development of weather/climate based livestock/ poultry management practices which include the general care. Nutrition and health managements for optimizing conditions for best yield in respect of milk, meat, eggs, wool, load carrying capacity etc. have been properly documented. 

3.1 Introduction

One of the most important functions to the AAS units is to widely disseminate the advisory bulletins among the user community. A unit cannot be considered operational unless its bulletins are reaching the target masses. The dissemination is one way communication which is broadly speaking the process by which human beings share information, knowledge, experience, ideas and motivation. 

2.1 Introduction

Agro-meteorological advisories relate the past, current and predicted future weather to agricultural activities. Behaviour of weather both in space and time, considerably affect the agricultural production. Year to year variations in crop production are generally depended to the abnormalities in the behaviours of weather. The mission of the Agromet Advisory Services (AAS) of NCMRWF is to maximise farmers’ profits by decreasing losses due to weather calamities and also by increasing the timeliness of operations in the crop field. An ideal AAS bulletin helps to reduce environmental pollution through the optimum use of chemicals in the crop filed. An ideal AAS bulletin should contain farm management information to weather based agricultural operations and available to the farmers in real time.

1.1 Introduction

Climate change is evident from the observation of increase in global average air and ocean temperatures, precipitation and extreme rainfall, widespread melting of ice, storms / storm surges flooding and rising global mean sea level, as recorded in the Fourth Assessment Report of IPCC. Eleven of the last twelve years (1995-2006) rank among the twelve warmest years in the instrumental record of global surface temperature (since 1850). 

13.1 Introduction

At a national level, the agricultural sector is one of the major potential users of energy in the Indian context. Further, it is often highly dependent on the supply of electricity and fuel in order to function properly. The term “agriculture” refers to all on-farm activities required for farming, raising animals, and associated activities associated with farmers, growers, and entrepreneurs. Fuels such as petroleum and electricity are primarily used for the operation of pump sets and other operations. In the future, this may result in problems with supply and price. Moreover, India has relatively small reserves of crude oil and will eventually be forced to import more crude oil to make up for the lack of reserves. In order to save energy and money on the farm, farmers must identify opportunities for energy conservation on the farm in order to maximize energy efficiency. 

12.1 Introduction

A magneto hydrodynamic energy conversion system or MHD system converts heat energy directly into electricity. An MHD generator produces electricity via the interaction of a moving fluid with a magnetic field and ionized gas. MHD conversion does not involve any mechanical conversion intermediary. As a result, this process offers substantial fuel savings because the process of producing mechanical energy and then converting it to electrical energy is eliminated. It is possible to generate electricity in large quantities using MHD power plants while reducing the impact on the environment. During his Bakerian lecture in 1832 to the Royal Society, Michael Faraday presented the concept of MHD power generation for the very first time. 

11.1 Introduction

More than 70% of Earth’s surface is covered by the ocean, the world’s largest solar energy collector and storage system. By utilizing only a small portion of this energy, we can meet all the energy needs around the world. As long as the sun shines and there are natural ocean currents, Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) energy source is free, abundant, and continually replenished. It is estimated that 3 to 5 terawatts (1 terawatt is 1012 watts) of baseload power generation can be practically harvested without affecting ocean temperatures or the environment of the planet. this is about the twice the global demand for electricity. Oceans are therefore an abundant renewable resource, offering a sustainable method for the production of electricity in the future. 

10.1 Introduction

As one ofthe oldest and most widely used renewable energy sources, hydropower generates electricity by using the natural flow of flowing water. Streams and rivers have been used for producing mechanical energy for thousands of years. Hydroelectric power plants are located near or on water sources since they derive their power from flowing water. The amount of energy that can be released in moving water depends on the volume of the water flowing and the elevation change from one point to another, often called head. Generally, hydropower plants can produce more electricity when there is more water flow and a higher head. 

9.1 Introduction

Hydrogen is colourless and odourless gas. Hydrogen is simplest and lightest element and most abundant available element on the earth. It is not primary energy source as it does not exist in free state however it presents in compound with oxygen (water) and carbon, nitrogen and oxygen in living material and fossil fuels (natural gas, coal and biomass). Therefore, hydrogen can be produced from these sources using some external energy. Hydrogen can be burned without generating CO₂ and have clean combustion. but with air it can form very explosive mixture. Hydrogen is considered as an energy carrier. Like energy carrier allows the transport of energy in usable form from one place to another. 

8.1 Introduction

Biogas is produced by the anaerobic digestion of biodegradable materials with the help of microorganisms. Biogas is also considered as renewable energy source because of is environment friendly nature. Conversion of cattle dung, kitchen wastes and agricultural wastes into biogas have the potential to minimize the burden on the fossil fuel and reduce the environmental pollution. Majority of developing countries specially their rural and suburban areas faces lack of access to the electricity and cooking gas. Biogas technology is emerging as a sustainable technology for waste treatment which could help to tackle the waste disposal issue in developing countries. 

7.1 Introduction

A biodiesel fuel is an environmentally friendly, renewable, biodegradable fuel that is produced at domestic facilities from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled grease from restaurants. In accordance with the Renewable Fuel Standard, biodiesel meets the requirements for biomass-based diesel as well as the requirements for advanced biofuels as a whole. Biodiesel is distinct from renewable diesel, also known as “green diesel.” In its pure, unblended form, biodiesel is also known as B100 or neat biodiesel. Biodiesel is used to fuel compression-ignition engines in the same way as petroleum diesel. Alternatively, biodiesel is a liquid biofuel that can be used in diesel engines alone or blended with diesel oil. The fuel is obtained through the chemical conversion of vegetable oils or animal fats combined with alcohol.

6.1 Introduction

Biomass pellets are one of the most common types of biomass fuel. It is generally composed of wood waste, agricultural biomass, grasses, and forest residues, and is one of the most popular types of biomass fuel available today. Pelletization of biomass results in significant savings in terms of transportation, and storage, as well as the ease of handling biomass as a whole. In terms of flowability, dense cube pellets are similar to cereal grains in terms of their characteristics of being dense and cube-shaped. Due to their regular geometry and small size, biomass pellets are easily fed through an automatic feed system with fine calibration thanks to their regular shape. Because pellets are so dense, they can be stored in a compact way and transported over a long distance in a rational and efficient manner, because of their density. Furthermore, pellets can also be produced with a low moisture content, even though they are extremely dense. This allows them to burn with a high degree of combustion efficiency due to their low moisture content.

5.1 Introduction

Biomass energy is the energy obtained from biomass or living things. Biomass is renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals. Plants generally produced through the process of photosynthesis as shown in Figure 5.1. Biomass is organic, meaning it is made of material that comes from living things, such as plants and animals. Wood, plants, and waste are the most common biomass energy sources. These are called biomass feedstocks. A plant absorbs the sun’s energy through photosynthesis and converts carbon dioxide and water into nutrients (carbohydrates). The energy from these materials can be transformed into usable energy through direct and indirect means. Biomass can be burned to create heat (direct), converted into electricity (direct), or processed into biofuel (indirect).

4.1 Introduction

The wind is caused by the motion of air. In different regions, there are pressure differences that cause winds. There is a tremendous amount of energy carried by them. The use of wind energy can be profitable in regions with strong winds for a significant part of the year. The wind is a form of solar energy. The wind is caused by uneven heating of air and land by the sun. The earth’s rotation and geological irregularities also play a role. Heating causes air to rise, and cooling causes cooler air to fall to fill the space. As a result, the air mass moves. On a global basis, the poles exert a primary forcing function that allows the equator to receive surface winds from the poles. 

3.1 Introduction

The sun emits electromagnetic radiation, which is referred to as solar radiation. Every location on the Earth’s surface receives some sunlight during the course of the year, but the amount of solar radiation varies. On a daily basis, we see much less energy from the sun than it emits and incident upon the earth. In an hour and a half, the amount of sunlight that reaches the surface of the earth is enough to provide enough energy for an entire year. 

2.1 Energy Consumption Pattern and Energy Resources in India

Energy is vital commodity in economic development of the world and any country. India also experienced a greater shift from non-commercial to commercial energy use after independence over the period. Industrialization and increased population has increased the consumption of commercial energy sources. The mechanization in agriculture and access to clean energy for household application also increased the consumption of the energy. however, the per capita energy consumption remains lower compared to the developed countries. In broader view, the energy used can be categorised in Non-commercial and Commercial energy sources that are used in India.

1.1 Introduction

The life on the earth is driven by the energy available in the various forms. Energy is the most crucial entity in development of the world. The sufficient and sustainable supply of energy is deciding factor in the global energy market. Solar energy from the sun is the basic source of energy on the earth which further manifest into the other energy forms. However, the fossil fuel energy is widely used energy on the larger scale on commercial basis due to its availability and technological advancement in handling these fossil fuels.

Introduction

Nutrients are essential substances present in different types of foods which perform various life-sustaining functions in the body. They are required for growth, maintenance and the reproductive process. Poultry require more than 40 such nutrients, which are classified into six major groups - water, carbohydrates, protein (amino acids), fats, minerals and vitamins. Poultry diets must be formulated to provide all these essential nutrients as per the bird’s requirement to achieve optimum growth and production. Several ingredients including cereal grains, cereal by-products, fats, plant protein sources, animal by-products, vitamin and mineral supplements, crystalline amino acids and feed additives are commonly used to prepare poultry diets. Further, specialist areas such as immuno-nutrition are rapidly gaining attention due to continued advancement in the field of poultry nutrition (Beski et al., 2015).

Introduction

Feed is the main contributor to economic and environmental costs of poultry production. This applies in particular to the protein fraction of the diet as the protein constitutes the second abundant and the most expensive nutrient in the broiler diets. Quantitatively, protein rich feed sources constitute 25 to 40 per cent of the diets, next to cereal grains as energy sources accounting for 60 to 70 per cent. In terms of input cost, protein sources account for 40 to 50 per cent of feed cost as these ingredients are highly expensive and play a major role in determining the cost of broiler production.

Introduction

Limited feed supply and poor quality of the available feeds are the major constraints for optimal livestock and poultry productivity in all developing nations like India. Most of the regions in India are characterized by irregular rainfall and thus livestock have to survive on persistent shortage of feed resources of low nutritive value for most part of the year. The poultry industry is an important livestock sub-sector in India with a potential to solve the problem of malnutrition, unemployment and augmenting rural economy. However, high feed cost decreases animal production which contributes to lower animal protein availability for human consumption. This vicious cycle of low productivity and intake of animal protein has been maintained and sustained by the scarcity of feedstuff.

Introduction

The huge nutritious potential of agricultural based byproducts has generated an interest of nutritionist for utilizing them in efficient ways in order to improve the production of animals. In this concern, solid state fermentation (SSF) is a promising and novel technique. The lignocellulosic structural characters of plant residues provide them a solid support and act as substrates for the microbial fermentation to produce certain value added products through SSF. The scope of SSF in the field of animal nutrition is wide, in terms for the production of enzymes, bioactive components, organic acids, vitamins, and feed additives, bio-transforming products, biological degradation and detoxification of agricultural residues/wastes. 

Introduction

The Indian poultry industry has emerged as the most dynamic and fastest expanding segment in animal husbandry sector with an annual growth rate of 23% in broiler chickens and 5% in egg production. The production performance of birds in terms of meat and egg has also improved significantly; however, the sector has crippled many times due to various reasons among which the important ones were rising feed cost, non-availability og feed ingredients, fluctuating market price of produce (eggs and broilers) and emergence of new or re-emerging of existing diseases. In future, poultry industry may face more such challenges.

Introduction

Poultry production is practiced at levels ranging from subsistence to large scale commercial operations. Commercial operations depend on hatcheries for the supply of day-old chicks while the subsistence farmers hatch their chicks by natural incubation. The hatchery plays a central role in the poultry production chain. Optimization of hatchery and breeder farm management can lead to improvement of the result throughout the production chain (Heier and Jarp, 2001). Generally, the success of hatchery management is monitored by the percentage of eggs set that are hatched (hatchability) and the number of chicks that are placed for grow-out (saleable chicks). 

Introduction

Poultry industry is one of the quickest developing sectors in India. Poultry involves a remarkable position in the livestock economy of India by coexistence of intense technology, capital, and scale with integrated production, marketing and the others based on the traditional knowledge and practices. The annual growth rate is more than 11% and 8 % in broiler production and egg production respectively. The general development rate of poultry industry is around 7-8% for every annum, most outstanding among all sectors of agriculture. In poultry industry, poultry meat accounts for two third of the value of output and one third by eggs. 

Introduction

There has been a steady increase in the poultry meat and egg production globally during the past few decades. Though the high biological value of eggs and poultry meat have resulted in an increasing demand for these two products, growing awareness for food quality and safety are becoming increasingly significant in determining the market value of such products. The importance of mycotoxins as one of the major detractor of poultry productivity and also of product quality, hence, becomes more relevant now than ever.

Introduction

The term ‘mycotoxin’ coined in 1962 in the aftermath of death of about 1,00,000 turkey poults in London, due to “Turkey X disease” in 1960, linked to a peanut meal contaminated with aflatoxins. Now, about 300 to 400 toxic fungal metabolites have been identified as mycotoxins, of which some are capable of inflicting deleterious effects to animal and avian health. The most commonly affected feedstuffs are cereals (maize, sorghum, barley, wheat, and rice meal), oilseeds (groundnuts) and oilseed meals (cottonseed meal). There are three major genera of fungi that produce mycotoxins: Aspergilius, Fusarium and Penicillium (Bennett and Klich, 2003). Among these, the Aspergillus species are of much concern as they are responsible for the production of aflatoxins, the most potent fungal toxin causing aflatoxicoses that have detrimental effects on living beings (Barret, 2000).

Introduction

The poultry industry is under pressure to produce safe and good quality meat in the welfare conditions. Many areas such as genetics, biosecurity, and immunoprophylaxis were improved, and hatchery is one of the areas in which welfare could be improved for better production output. Under commercial hatched conditions, poults hatch over a 36 to 48 hour period (called hatching window) and after additional processing are transported to the farm. Hatch window is the time gap from first chick hatched to last chick hatched (Noiva et al., 2014). This causes early hatched chicks to be deprived of feed for longer duration (Kadam etal., 2013).