eChapters

Understanding the mechanisms controlling the adsorption of organic molecules on clay minerals is of significance in many branches of science and industry. The interaction between clay minerals and organic compounds elicits interest that emanates from the prospect that the adsorption of the organic matter fraction in the soil on the mineral particles would render physical stability to soil aggregates.

Organic compounds tend to interact with clay minerals by:

• adsorption process at the external surfaces
• adsorption process at the external and internal surfaces

The chemistry of humic substances is the least comprehended in the field of Soil Science. The many important functions of humus will remain obscure if the structural chemistry of the humic and fulvic acids is not known. A variety of functional groups have been reported in humic substances. However, considerable disagreement still exists in respect of the exact amounts present and, in some cases, proof of existence is lacking.

Some important structural groups of organic molecules are given below:

Practically every aspect of the chemistry of heavy metals in soil is related to the formation of complexes with organic matter. While monovalent cations (Na+, K+, etc.) are held mainly by simple cation exchange through the formation of salts with COOH groups (RCOONa, RCOOK), multivalent cations (Cu²+, Zn²+, Mn²+, etc.) form coordinate linkages with organic molecules.

A schematic diagram showing organic matter reactions involving metal ions in soils is given in Fig. 9.1. The metals present in the solution phase as charged species and as soluble metal-organic complexes (MChe), are shown to be influenced by the activities of higher plants and microbes, both of which serve as sources of water-soluble ligands for complex formation; some metals are held in insoluble organic complexes and are non-leachable and relatively unavailable to plants.

The synthesis of humic substances is the least understood and the most intriguing aspect of humus chemistry. This has been one of the intensely- researched subjects for a long time. Formation of humic substances takes several pathways during the decay of plant and animal remains in soil and the four important ones are shown in Fig. 8.1.

Fig. 8.1: Mechanisms for the formation of soil humic substances

The classical theory by Waksman advocated humic substances as modified lignins (Pathway 1), but a vast majority of current crop of investigators favour a mechanism involving quinones (Pathways 2 and 3). Including sugar-amine condensation pathway (Pathway 4), all the four pathways must be considered as likely mechanisms for the synthesis of humic and fulvic acids in nature. It is absolutely possible that these four pathways may operate in all soils, though not to the same extent or in the same order of importance. 

Soil is the fundamental resource in the agricultural production systems and monitoring its fertility is critical to the sustainability of agriculture. Plant nutrients undergo different transformation processes through which they are converted from unavailable to available forms. Nutrient cycling thus involves the transformation and availability of nutrients and is mediated by microbial action. Understanding the dynamics of nutrient and soil organic matter transformations requires an understanding of the biological, chemical, and physical processes involved.

7.1. Soil Nitrogen

Soil organic matter is among the most complex materials existing in nature. In addition to the organic constituents present in undecayed plant and animal tissues, soil organic matter contains living and dead microbial cells, microbially synthesized compounds and an endless array of derivatives of these materials produced as the result of microbial activity. Soil organic matter probably contains most of the naturally occurring organic compounds. Some components of soil organic matter are no doubt distinctive to the soil environment, particularly those involving inorganic-organic complexes.

6.1. Composition of Soil Organic Matter

The composition of soil organic fraction is as follows:

1. Components of organic residues undergoing decomposition

Soil is the product of various soil forming factors acting on the parent material over a period of time. The parent material is usually devoid of organic matter and consists of variable quantities of sand, silt, clay and carbonates. High temperatures and adequate moisture promote mineral transformations, but these effects are magnified by living organisms and the organic substances they produce. The biosphere and the organic substances they produce are directly or indirectly responsible for the following:

1. Decay of organic matter by microbes leads to the formation of CO₂ which is quantitatively the most important “aggressive” weathering agent because of its tendency to form carbonic acid with water [CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃].

Carbon is the cornerstone of all life on Earth. Plant tissues and microbial cells contain approximately 40 to 50% of carbon on dry weight basis. Yet, the ultimate source is the CO₂ of the atmosphere. The CO₂ is converted into organic carbon by the action of photoautotrophic organisms (higher plants and green algae). It has been estimated that the vegetation on earth’s surface consume some 1.3 x 10¹⁴ kg of CO₂ per annum which is about V₂₀ of the total CO₂ supply of the atmosphere or ¹/₁₀₀₀ of that in the ocean.

Soils vary greatly in their organic matter content. For all practical purposes the organic matter content of the soil parallels the soil N content. The C/N ratio of soil organic matter generally falls in the range of 10 to 12. Because of the ease with which Kjeldahl determination can be made, N is often used as an index of soil organic matter content.

3.1. Composition of Organic Matter in Soil

Organic matter constitutes 1 to 6% of the topsoil weight of most upland soils. In a typical grassland soil, 5 to 6% of organic matter may be present in the top 15 cm. Top soils with less than 1% organic matter are mostly limited to desert regions. On the contrary, the organic matter content of soils in low, wet areas may be as high as 90% or even more. Soils with more than 12 - 18% organic carbon (approximately 20 - 30% organic matter) are called organic soils.

Soil organic matter makes up only a few per cent of most soils, but it has a great deal of influence on soil properties and on agricultural productivity.

2.1. Quantity of Organic Matter

Based on the content of organic matter, soils are identified as mineral or organic. Mineral soils dominate most of the world’s cultivated land and may contain anything from a trace to 30 per cent of organic matter. Organic soils are naturally rich in organic matter, chiefly due to climatic reasons. Although they contain more than 30 per cent organic matter, it is precisely for this reason that they are not vital cropping soils.

The term soil organic matter (SOM) includes any material that is produced originally by soil organisms (plant or animal) that is returned to the soil and undergoes decomposition process. At any point in time, it consists of an array of materials, ranging from the intact original tissues of plants and animals to the substantially decomposed mixture of materials known as humus (Fig.1.1). Most soil organic matter originates from plant tissues. Plant residues contain 60 - 90 per cent of moisture and the remaining dry matter consists mostly of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, with smaller amounts of sulphur, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium. Though present in small amounts, these nutrients are of great significance from the standpoint of soil fertility.

Organic manures

Anand Swarup (1992) stated that application of green manures along with rice husk increased the concentrations of N, P, Zn, Mn and Fe and decreased the Na concentration of rice in a reclaimed sodic soil. Kolambe and Patel (1994) reported that application of organic amendments along with phosphorus increased the uptake of phosphorus at different growth stages of rice.

Talashilkar and Chavan (1997) reported that incorporation of 10 t of Glyricidia ha^-1 and application of 100 per cent RDF recorded the highest total N uptake by rice over three successive years. Mishra and Sharma (1997) found that application of 100 per cent NPK + 10 t FYM ha^-1 resulted in highest total uptake of NPK by rice. Mahapatra etal. (1997) revealed that application of 80 kg N ha^-1 through green manure alone or through combined use of green manure and urea increased the total uptake of N by rice over application of fertilizers alone.

The uptake of Mg by rice plant was highest when fertilizer was applied in combination with vermicompost (Jadhav etal, 1997). Pattanayak etal. (2001) also reported the highest Ca uptake in the treatments that received green manuring of dhaincha. Sriramachandrasekharan (2001) who reported the highest Fe uptake of rice with green manuring of Sesbania aculeata.

Debele et al. (2001) reported that the application of FYM enriched with 10% rock phosphate + gypsum with PSB and PSF @ 500 g inoculums t^-1 of FYM increased the nutrient uptake of maize. The higher nutrient uptake of 227 kg N ha^-1, 59.5 kg P ha^-1 and 227 kg K ha^-1 recorded with the application of enriched FYM @ 2 t ha^-1.

In the global scenario, the increasing energy crisis and consequent escalation of chemical fertilizer prices along with increasing risk associated with soil degradation have reviewed interest in bio-resources for attaining soil health and sustainable crop production. The use of organic manures, bio-fertilizers and chemical fertilizers will augment the efficiency of combined application of nutrients to maintain a high level of soil productivity and rice production (Thakuria et al., 1991; Prasad et al., 1995). Several experimental evidences showed that the combination of various bio-resources with chemical fertilizers improved the rice production in sustainable way (Roy and Jha, 1987; Subba Rao, 1995; Mahapatra et al., 1997; Suresh et al., 2001).

The bio-resources application in the soil is known to improve the biological properties of the soil. Several earlier reports show a spur in microbial populations or increased microbial biomass carbon and the enhanced enzymatic activities with the incorporation of bio-resources in soil (Perucci, 1990; Goyal et al., 1993; Bonde et al., 2004).

Microbial populations

Indigenous microbial populations in soil are of fundamental importance for an eco system functioning, through determining nutrient cycling, organic matter decomposition and energy flow (Doran and Zeiss, 2000).

Secondary nutrients

Secondary nutrients includes Calcium, magnesium, and sulfur. Crop plants requires secondary nutrients in moderate quantity for crop growth and yield. Their requirement by plant is less than the macro nutrients. Sulphur and Magnesium requirement of crops are very similar to the Phosphorus needs. Calcium is required in higher amount than Phosphorus. Calcium and magnesium are mostly deficient in acid and alkali soils. In India S deficiencies are found in almost 40 per cent of the cultivated soil. Under intensive cropping system, the use of higher amount of nitrogenous fertilizer without secondary and micro nutrients and lesser use of organic manures are the major reason for the secondary and micro nutrient deficiency in soil.

Potassium availability in most of the coastal salt affected soils of India is rich except when the soils are low in clay content (Bandyopadhyay et al., 1985). Plants grown under high salinity may show K deficiency due to the antagonistic effect of Na on K absorption and / or disturbed Na / K ratio. Under such conditions application of K is also known to reduce the adverse effect of salinity and sodicity on crop growth (Qadar, 1995). Singh et al. (1980) reported that the addition of FYM increased the K concentration in the soil. Swarup (1987) reported that the incorporation of green manure increased the available N, P and K status of the soil. Available P and K remarkably increased to a tune of 30 and 44 per cent respectively by the application of coir waste (Santhi et al., 1991).

Experiments at Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI), Kamal, India showed that alkali soils are not always high in available P and rice and wheat significantly responded to addition of P (Pathak et al., 1975).

The availability of phosphorus in soil either native or added is limited by fixation and precipitation mechanisms. The organic acids released during decomposition of organic matter influences the soil pH, form stable complexes with cations responsible for P fixation and thus increases the availability (Tiwari et al., 1980).

The use of bulky organic manures (Maurya and Ghosh, 1972; Chaudhary et al., 1981) and green manures (Prabhakar et al., 1972; Sharma et al., 2000) has been found very beneficial for P management of saline and alkali soils as these improve the soil physical condition and the availability of soil phosphates.

It is generally observed that N, P and Zn content in soil decreases with increasing soil salinity. Nutrient imbalances created by continuous use of chemical fertilizers, particularly nitrogenous fertilizer alone, combined with sub optimal rates of other nutrients or total omission of other nutrients are the primary causes for unsustainable yields of crops in saline soil. A sustainable approach for nutrient management in salt affected soils should therefore include balanced use of organic, inorganic and biological sources of nutrients (Bandyopadhyay and Rao, 2001). Organic amendments are known to facilitate the reclamation of sodic soils and better nutrition of crops (Anand swarup, 1992).

The coastal salt affected soils are low in productivity due to various soil fertility constraints that affect the crop growth and yield. The high salt content &/or high pH cause changes in solubility, availability and efficiency of plant nutrients, besides deteriorating the physical condition of soil. The soil biology (microbial population and enzymatic activities) also severely affected in these salt affected soils. The bio-resources are known to improve soil physical, chemical & biological properties of the soil. The maximization of rice production and considerable improvement in quality and composition of rice in coastal salt affected soil with the use of bio-resources have been reported by several research workers.

Around the world, nearly one billion people live along the 3,12,000 Km long coastline. The Indian coastline runs around 8,129 Km distributed along nine coastal states, two groups of islands and two union territories. The coastal ecosystem of India forms a very valuable resource community, supporting the livelihood security of several million rural poor and also contributing the national economy in a large measure. The latest estimates by National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSS & LUP), Nagpur, India, using Global Assessment of Soil Degradation (GLASOD) guidelines indicate that the coastal area in the country is spread over an area of 11.8 million hectares (Mishra, 2005). Yadav et al. (1983) have reported about 3.1 M ha and 2.1 lakh ha of coastal salinity in India and Tamilnadu respectively.

Potato is an important crop of the world and grown in almost all the states in India. Apart from India, potato is grown in more than 100 countries but the intensity of cultivation varies considerably. For example in the Netherlands 19.6% of the total arable land is cultivated with potatoes. The figures for Germany, Peru and USA are 10.1%, 5.6% and less than 1% respectively. India ranks fourth in area (1.29 m ha) and third in production (25.23 m ton) in the world. The productivity of potato depends mainly on the quality and quantity of planting materials and the agronomic management practices adopted. Most of developing countries including India experience release of high yielding varieties, development of adequate agronomic and pest control measures but the gap between supply and demand of good quality adequate quantity seed has to be the major constraint in increasing its productivity. 

5.1 Jute Seed Production

Jute ranks secand next to cotton as the most important natural fibre and it recognized as the ‘golden fibre’. Its products being biodegradable and environment friendly in contrast to synthetic substitutes, a renewed interest in this natural fibre has been generated in the recent past throughout the world. Important characteristics of jute fibre are its silky lustures, high tensile strength, low extensibility, considerable heat resistance. Because of its great abundance and shortage of cotton, jute is blended with cotton and jute/cotton blended yarns are produced mainly to take advantage of the lower price of jute fibre (Doraiswamy et al, 1998). Several diversified product is also made from jute. Since currently the paper industry has been using it as a raw material for paper. It is also being used in geotextile. The jute sticks are largely used as fuel and also for making gun powder.

3.1 Redgram or Pigeon Pea

In any production programme, the importance of quality seed needs hardly be emphasized. In fact, the major bottleneck in the pigeon pea cultivation programme is the restricted or poor availability of quality seeds of the desirable varieties. The seed has been considered as the ‘vehicle of change’. With better attention paid to their interaction among water, fertilizer and seed of improved varieties, the production can be maximized. Although a numbers of improved varieties of pigeon pea have been released since 1970, organized seed production programmes have been rather limited. Most of our national efforts in this direction continue to be centralized on cereal crops like wheat, rice and hybrid millets. Moreover, the benefits of the current research will not reach the farmers unless large-scale seed multiplication programmes are organized.

4.1 Mustard

The principle oil yielding rape seed and mustard sp. cultivated in India are

4.1.1 Land Requirement

Select seed field on which the Brassica sp. was not grown in the previous season unless the crop in the previous season was of the same variety and was grown from certified seed. To avoid disease control it is necessary to fallow a 3-4 year crop rotation so that a given field is selected one in every 3-4 years. In addition select field should be well drained, leveled and suitable for Brassica cultivation.

2.1 Rice

Rice is the staple food for the largest number of people on the Earth. According to an estimate, the global rice production must reach 800 million tonne from the present 91.04 million tonne in 2005-06 to meet the demand in 2025. It’s area is 37% of the total area under food grains as against 20% under wheat, another important food crop. But globally it stands next to wheat in harvested area. As the irrigated rice contributes more than 75 per cent of the total rice production, enhancing its yield potential would be key to meeting the global rice requirement for an additional 215 million tonne. To achieve the target yield, rice varieties with a yield advantage of about 20 per cent over popular and widely adapted rice varieties under tropical conditions must be developed. Experience in China, India, Vietnam, Philippines, Bangladesh and several other countries clearly indicates that hybrid rice technology offers readily available option to meet this challenge. 

Current Status of Seed Production

Organized seed production in India became possible with the formation of National Seed Corporation (NSC) during 1963, which paved the way for a sound seed industry to come as a consequence of the introduction of hybrid technology during 1961-65. The release of high yielding dwarf varieties of wheat and rice by the 1960’s gave further impetus to the growth of the seed industry in the country. For the total area under cultivation of 26.7 m ha and 65 per cent of the area) insect, disease and weeds (10-40 per cent loss) and also poor shelf-life. Hybrid technology have defined solution in several crop plants specially vegetables, cotton, rice etc. with the development of appropriate hybridization and seed production. In 1990-91, the area planted to ‘bought seed’ was about 10.35 per cent. The total ‘bought seed’ was estimated at around 5.91 lakh tonnes valued at Rs 679.80 crores. 

These beans are mostly found in China, Korea, Japan, India, Sri Lanka, Madagascar, and Indonesia, and are not frequently cultivated for commercial purposes. Sword bean pods can reach a length of over a foot and a width of one to two inches. It is grown as a minor vegetable for local use throughout South and Southeast Asia, particularly in India, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar. Sword bean is typically planted as an annual vegetable crop because it is a perennial climbing legume. Sword bean is grown for its soft pods, which can be eaten raw or cooked.

Equatorial Asia is home to winged beans (Geneva). On atrip to Thailand, Baker Creek’s founder, Jere Gettle, first observed flying beans. Because the winged bean is a tropical crop from the tropics, it takes a long time to flower, setting pods right before frost in our Missouri environment. The winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) is a tropical herbaceous legume plant also known as cigarillas, goa bean, four-angled bean, four-cornered bean, manila bean, princess bean, asparagus bean, and dragon bean. From the Philippines and Indonesia to India, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, and Sri Lanka, winged bean thrives in hot, humid equatorial climates. It’s well-known, yet it’s only farmed in limited quantities in Southeast Asia and Papua New Guinea.

Pigeon pea seeds discovered in historical tombs suggest it was farmed in Egypt circa 2000 BC. Vavilov (1939) concluded that India is the primary origin of the cultivated pigeon pea due to the wide diversity of germplasm available. It’s a crucial location in rain-fed agriculture. It is grown on 4.92 million hectares worldwide, including 3.58 million hectares (72.7 percent) in India alone. Although the crop is planted in 22 nations, it is only cultivated in considerable areas in a handful of them. Its seeds have become a widespread food in Asia, Africa, and Latin America since its domestication in the Indian subcontinent at least 3,500 years ago. It is an important source of protein for the Indian subcontinent’s people and is consumed on a big scale in South Asia. India is a major producer of pigeon peas. Kenya, Malawi, Uganda, Mozambique, and Tanzania are major producers of pigeon pea on the African continent.

In India, Indonesia, Malaysia, China, and tropical Africa, it is widely grown. In India, there are four species of bitter gourd that belong to the genus Momordica.

Botany and taxonomy: It is an annual climber vine with woody, thick stems that can grow up to 20 metres long, large, heart-shaped leaves, large, creamy to pale yellow flowers that are single, ovoid, large, dark green fruits that can grow up to 20 cm long and weigh up to 1.5 kilogrammes, periphery with smooth thorns, yellow turned orange when ripe, and black seeds. The leaves, petals, and seeds of this plant are edible and can be eaten as a vegetable.

• Useful plant parts: Fruits, leaves, flowers, tuberous root and seeds.
• Medicinal uses: To treat Ulcers, lumbago, fractures, bronchial asthma and bleeding piles.

Momordica dioica, also known as bristly balsam pear, prickly carolaho, teasle gourd, and kantola, is a flowering plant of the Cucurbitaceae/gourd family that is commonly known as spiny gourd or spine gourd. It is consumed as a vegetable throughout India and parts of South Asia. It is valuable commercially and is exported and utilised locally. The fruits are sometimes served with meat or fish and are prepared with spices or fried. Underground tubers are used to proliferate it. Small leaves, small yellow flowers, and small, dark green, spherical or oval fruits characterise this plant. It is dioecious, which means there are separate male and female organisms.

Spinach is estimated to have originated in ancient Persia some 2,000 years ago, and was transported to India and ancient China as the “Persian vegetable” via Nepal in 647 AD. The Saracens introduced spinach to Sicily around 827. Spinach (Spinacia oleracea), also known as vilayati palak in Hindi, is a leafy vegetable that grows well in cool or temperate climates. Vilayati spinach is dioecious, unlike beet leaf spinach, which is hermaphrodite. Its production is restricted to household gardens in mountainous regions of India, and it is consumed as a cooked vegetable.

“Every year, 26,688,150 tonnes of spinach are produced over the world.” With a production output of24,484,507 tonnes per year, China is the world’s greatest spinach grower. The United States of America is in second place, producing 323,620 tonnes each year. “Spinach isn’t grown in India.”

As early as the 16th century, rhubarb was farmed and marketed for therapeutic purposes. According to History of Fruit, by the 19th century, rhubarb had acquired prominence as a food and vegetable source, with a redder stem and sweeter flavour. Rhubarb is a native of Central Asia, and knowledge of its therapeutic properties dates back five thousand years in China. It was also widely used by Arabs, Greeks, and Romans in antiquity. It came as no surprise to Marco Polo when he discovered it in China in 1271.

Botany and taxonomy: Rhubarb refers to the fleshy, edible stalks (petioles) of Rheum species and hybrids (culinary rhubarb) of the Polygonaceae family, which are cooked and eaten. Rhubarb refers to the entire plant, which is an herbaceous perennial with short, thick rhizomes. The big, triangular leaves are inedible due to high quantities of oxalic acid and throne glycosides. 

The pointed gourd (Trichosanthes dioica Roxb, Cucurbitaceae) is an Indian tropical vegetable crop. It’s called as parwal, palwal, or parmal in different parts of India and Bangladesh, and it’s one of the region’s most significant vegetables. Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and some hilly portions of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu are among the states where the crop is commonly farmed. The entire cultivated area is 56 million hectares, while the total production is 798 million hectares (2018-19). Due to its well-established dioecism, perennial nature, and vegetative modes of multiplication, the pointed gourd is physically unique from other cucurbitaceous species.

In the 14th century, the term “parsnip” was borrowed into Middle English as a modification of the Old French word “pasnaie,” which was derived from the Latin noun “pastinaca,” which meant “parsnip” or “carrot.” This history is still reflected in the scientific name for the parsnip, “Pastinaca sativa.” The parsnip is a native of Eurasia; it has been farmed by the Romans and has been used as a vegetable since antiquity, but there is some misunderstanding between parsnips and carrots in historical texts. Prior to the arrival of cane sugar in Europe, it was employed as a sweetener. Parsnips are carrot-shaped root vegetables that are cream-colored and belong to the parsley family. Although they can be eaten fresh, they are more commonly roasted, boiled, fried, or steamed. The thin, tan peel of parsnips is usually peeled before use, revealing white flesh beneath.

Parsley is a popular culinary herb that is grown commercially as an annual plant for its attractive and aromatic leaves in many parts of the world. In Europe, parsley is the most generally farmed herb, and in the United States, it is the most commonly utilised herb. Rather than being a part of the diet, it is utilised as a garnish. The leaves’ oil can also be used to make sauces and spices.

Botany and taxonomy: Parsley is a biennial that is cultivated and managed as if it were an annual. It’s the most popular herb for garnishing and flavouring. Parsley comes in two varieties: moss-curled and flat-leaf. Moss-curled produces a rosette of finely cut and tightly curled leaves. It develops as a biennial, with a rosette of tripinnate leaves 10-25 cm (4-10 in) tall, numerous 1-3 cm (0.4-1.2 in) leaflets, and a taproot that serves as a winter food store. It develops a blooming stem with sparser leaves and umbels of yellow to yellowish-green flowers in the second year. 

Cucumis melo var. conomon or Oriental pickled melon is a veining annual vegetable native to China and India. In the summer, it produces yellow blooms, and in the fall, it harvests the fruit. The petals are crumpled because it belongs to the Cucumis genus.

Botany and taxonomy: The fruit’s outer surface is glossy and can be white or green, but it’s known as shiro-uri because when fully ripe, it turns white and is whiter than a cucumber. It’s a melon variety, but it’s used in cooking since it has a lighter sweetness and flavour, as well as a crisp texture when chewed. It contains vitamin C, vitamin B1, and carotene, however the majority of its constituents are water and low in calories.

In India, the ivy gourd is also called as small watermelon, little gourd, gentleman’s toes” and “Tindora/Tondli/Kundru.” This vine climbs aggressively and spreads quickly across fences, trees, shrubs, and other supports. Its natural range includes India and stretches from Africa to Asia.

Botany and taxonomy: This is a single-tendered perennial climber with glabrous leaves. The leaves are 6.5-8.5 cm long and 7-8 cm broad, with 5 lobes. It’s a dioecious species. Female and male blooms have three stamens and emerge from the axils on the petiole. Scarlet gourds are a genus of 25 species (Coccinia from the Greek, kokkinia or kokkinias - “red” or “scarlet”). It is found in SubSaharan Africa, as well as South and Southeast Asia (with one species, C. grandis), and has been imported to the New World. This is a single-tendered perennial climber with glabrous leaves. The leaves are 6.5-8.5 cm long and 7-8 cm broad, with 5 lobes. It’s a dioecious species. Female and male blooms have three stamens and emerge from the axils on the petiole.

Lima beans are flat green or light green beans. It is only utilised for the seed because the pods are coarse or woody. There are two kinds used in commercial canning: a climbing or pole variant and a dwarf or bush variation. Like other legumes used for seed, the lima bean (Phaseolus Iunatus) has a wide range in seed size, shape, and colour, as well as plant structure and primary applications. For freezing, canning, or fresh market usage, mature seeds are utilised like a vegetable. Lima’s have long been used as a grain legume when they are firm and dry. Peru is where they were discovered. The first domestication occurred in the Andes around 2000 BC, resulting in a large-seeded variety (Lima type), while the second occurred around 800 A.D. in Mesoamerica, resulting in a small-seeded variation (Sieva type).

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa), a member of the sunflower family Asteraceae, is India’s most popular salad vegetable. From a commercial standpoint, it is a tiny crop that is exclusively grown in kitchen gardens. However, because of the rising use of lettuce in continental hotels, the acreage and output of lettuce has expanded, making India the third largest producer. Lactuca indica, also known as Indian lettuce, is a lettuce species native to Asia that is found in Meghalaya and Sikkim and is used for medical purposes. Indian lettuce is a generic term for numerous Asian plants with leaves that vary in form and size. It is also known as the Goose vegetable, Tropical lettuce, Ku mak, Yao mak, Ku Mak Cai, Daun Panjang, and Sawi Rana.

The leek is a centuries-old crop native to the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East. The plant is linked to the onion, and its flavour is mild, sweet, and onion-like. Leek stalks are commonly used in European soups and stews, particularly as a side dish with potatoes, and can be cooked whole as a vegetable. It is a non-bulb producing onion family member farmed for blanched stem and leaves. It is eaten fresh or combined into salads, and it is cooked as a flavouring in soups and stews. It is not grown commercially in India, although it is a popular vegetable in a kitchen garden. The climate and soil conditions are the same as for onion.

Botany and taxonomy: The leek is a vegetable that is a cultivar of Allium ampeloprasum, often known as the broadleaf wild leek. 

Kale is thought to have originated in the eastern Mediterranean and Asia Minor, where it was first cultivated for sustenance around 2000 BCE. In the 14th century BC, curly-leaved cabbage cultivars coexisted with flat-leaved forms in Greece.

Botany & taxonomy: Kale (Brassica oleracea var. acephala) is a loose- leafed food plant that comes from the mustard family’s cabbage (Brassicaceae). Kale is a biennial plant that develops yellow four-petaled blooms in loose clusters in its second year, although being planted as an annual. In the winter, it is robust and flourishes, surviving temperatures as low as -15.0°C. After a strong frost, kale might become sweeter in flavour. Kale is a nutritional powerhouse because to its high levels of vitamins A, K, B6, and C, as well as calcium, potassium, copper, and manganese. Raw kale offers only 33 calories and 7 grammes of carbs per cup. As a result, it’s a diabetic and weight-loss-friendly vegetable.

Canavalia ensiformis is a vine that originated in South and Central America and has since spread throughout the tropics and subtropics of the planet. It’s used as a food source, fodder, and a cover crop or green manure. As a minor vegetable crop, jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis), commonly known as horse bean, is extensively dispersed in the tropics and subtropics. Jack bean is a semierect annual herb with a bushy appearance. It is only grown on a small scale in India’s eastern and north-eastern regions. Immature pods and seeds are cooked and eaten like a vegetable. The pods should be cooked in water for 15 minutes before cooking, and then the boiling water should be drained.

Sauropus androgynus, also known as katuk, star gooseberry, or sweet leaf, is a tropical shrub that is used as a leaf vegetable in some areas. It’s known as Chinese Malunggay in China, and madhura cheera in Kerala, India. It has several upright stems that can grow up to 2.5 metres tall and dark green oval leaves that are 5-6 cm long. It’s known as ‘Multivitamin Greens’ because of its great nutritional value. Chekurmanis, which may be found in practically every household kitchen garden in Kerala, has not been cultivated for commercial use on a significant scale. As a result, there are no data on the area and production of these vegetables.

Elephant foot yam, also known as suran or jimmikand, is gaining popularity due to its high yield potential and culinary qualities. It is grown in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Kerala, and Maharashtra in India, as well as in the north-eastern states of Odisha, Tamilnadu, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. This crop is being embraced for commercial production in northern and eastern India, thanks to the advent of a high yielding, non-acrid variety. Elephant foot yam has an output potential of 50-60 tonnes per hectare. Elephant foot yam is a tropical tuber crop that has been grown for generations in tropical Asia. It is gathered for its edible corms, tubers, and smooth petioles, which all contain important minerals.

The earliest Brassica planted in North America was Chinese cabbage, also known as celery cabbage and napa. It is becoming increasingly popular in western kitchens. When eaten fresh, the huge savoyed leaves with thick succulent midribs have a sweet flavour and crisp texture. The Pekinensis Group and the Chinensis Group are two cultivar groups of leaf vegetables frequently used in Chinese cuisine. These vegetables are turnip cultivars or subspecies that belong to the same genus as cabbage, broccoli, and cauliflower, among other Western mainstays.

Botany & taxonomy: Brassica rapa, one of two commonly cultivated mustard family (Brassicaceae) members that are variants of Chinese cabbage. Pak Choy is a type of Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa var. chinensis). Celery cabbage is another name for Napa cabbage.

Celery was grown as an aromatic and therapeutic herb by Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was first grown in Italy in the 16th century after this wild variety. It was then introduced to the British Islands by the Italians and French at the end of the 17th century. It was first grown in North America in the nineteenth century. Celery’s young leaves and stem are high in minerals, vitamins, and proteins, making it one of the most essential therapeutic plants. Celery oil has a pleasant aroma. This aromatic oil aids in the efficient functioning of the human brain. On an area of roughly 5000 acres, the crop is grown primarily in Punjab (Jallandhar, Gurdaspur, and Amritsar districts), Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh (Ladhwa and Saharanpur districts). Punjab provides almost 90% of the overall production

Brussels sprouts are thought to have originated in the Belgian city of Brussels, from which they got their name. Records in the Brussels area date back to the 13th century. In the 18th century, the French coined the term. They are not native to the United States and have never been seen growing wild. Brussels sprouts are a type of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera) that belongs to the mustard family Brassicaceae and are commonly produced in Europe and North America for its edible buds known as sprouts. It is cultivated for its tasty buds. The leaf veggies have a diameter of 1.5-4.0 cm (0.6-1.6 in) and resemble small cabbages.

Botany & taxonomy Brussels sprouts are a type of Cole vegetable that belongs to the Brassicaceae family.

Brassica oleracea variety italica is a type of cabbage from the mustard family (Brassicaceae) that is grown for its delicious blossom buds and stalk. Sprouting broccoli, which is native to the eastern Mediterranean and Asia Minor, was first planted in ancient Rome and then imported to England and America in the 1700s.

Botany & taxonomy Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) is an edible green plant belonging to the cabbage family (family Brassicaceae, genus Brassica) that is grown for its enormous blooming head, stalk, and small accompanying leaves. Sprouting and heading broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) are two varieties of broccoli. After the terminal heads are removed in sprouting kinds, axillary shoots with smaller flower heads normally grow. Heading type produces cauliflower-like heads that can be a variety of colours.