eChapters

The quality of essential oils is very complex. An individual oil may have hundreds of ingredients, the principle components being a group of complex substances known as terpenes and their compounds or derivatives. Due to this reason a single essence has a wide range of therapeutic actions.
The chemical constituents of plants are of two kinds: products of primary metabolism and products of secondary metabolism. The first are mainly carbohydrates, amino acids and fixed oils produced by light-absorbing (photosynthetic) processes. The latter group of chemicals arises from the primary metabolites. They include glycosides, terpenoids, alkaloid and essential oils. Essential oils lack the water soluble constituents such as tannins,
bitter compounds sugar, mucilages and pectins, playing important role in the medical action of the plant.
The essential oils have been credited with possessing almost all therapeutic properties in a concentrated form. The therapeutic properties of the whole oil are that result of synergism: an interaction of all its chemical constituents working harmoniously together so that the whole essential oil becomes more potent than the sum of its individual parts.
The essential oil lacks certain chemical compounds found in the raw plant material. It is still a highly complex substance, that it cannot be replicated in the laboratory. Even though high-tech processes such as gas liquid chromatography (GLC) can separate out main constituents of essential oils. By looking at the chromatogram, it is impossible to isolate the numerous trace elements including number of unidentified compounds which make up
the whole.

The separation of essential oils responsible for odour/fine smell from different plantparts by gentle heating is known by centuries ago. A large number of such components being volatile are called as ‘Essential oils’. Presently, it also covers many of the less volatile constituents. The essential oils (extracts of the plant) with different types of flavours/odours are aromatic components, which can be separated by steam/hydro-distillation or extraction by solvents.
Essential oils largely contain terpenic compounds, made up of two or more isoprenyl units (C-5). Besides, a large number of other compounds which have nothing to do with isoprene units, have also been reported by various workers. Essential oils are of quite use in perfumes, flavour and aroma-therapy industries and their economic production is very much essential from farmers’ point of view. The optimum stage of harvest is very crucial for high quality and quantity of the essential oil from different parts of the plants (leaves, inflorescence, entire herb, roots, seeds, rhizomes etc.).
The quality of the essential oils largely depends on the kinds of the metals (copper, aluminium, mild steel, stainless steel) used in distillation unit, as some of the essential oils react with free acids present in the oil and thus imparting off-smell of aroma and colouration. Presently, distillation units made up of stainless steel are preferred which has no reaction to phenolic, acids, etc., and oils produced are very clean, less coloured and of high quality preferred by the cosmetic and perfumery industries engaged in formulation of various types of essence and scents.

Objective: Equip participants with the skills to communicate clearly, confidently, and empathetically in verbal, non-verbal, and written forms to foster collaboration, reduce misunderstandings, and build stronger workplace relationships.
Why It Matters
Effective communication is the cornerstone of professional success. It ensures ideas are conveyed clearly, builds trust, and prevents conflicts. Poor communication can lead to misaligned expectations, decreased productivity, and strained relationships. For example, a vague email can cause project delays, or a misunderstood tone in a meeting can create tension. This module empowers participants to master communication in diverse workplace scenarios.
Learning Outcomes: By the end of this module, participants will:
1. Understand the components of effective communication (verbal, nonverbal, written).
2. Practice active listening and empathetic responses to enhance interpersonal connections.
3. Craft clear, professional written messages tailored to their audience.
4. Apply communication strategies in real-world scenarios through interactive exercises.

There has been increasing demand of plant based raw materials for manufacturing pharmaceuticals, flavours, fragrances, cosmetics & other related products. Among these, ginsenosides, taxol, artemisinin
etc. are some of the biomolecules used in making drugs with great demand in the market. Aromatic plants are an integral component of research and development in the pharmaceutical and aroma industry.
In India, the annual growth in this sector is around 15-20 percent. There are approximately 7500 plant species of medicinal value, including aromatic plants having significant scope for phyto-pharmaceuticals and cosmetic & perfumery industry. Because raw materials are still harvested from wild growing populations in the forests, introduction of these plants in agriculture is need of the hour for further research efforts to bring them into commercial cultivation as these plants also promise large benefits to farmers, if brought under cultivation. This can be achieved by screening germplasm from natural flora to select suitable genotypes for sustainable use in the prevalent cropping system.
Plant tissue culture technically known as micro-propagation and broadly defined as a collection of methods used to grow large number of plants in vitro (in an aseptic and closely controlled environment). This technique is effective because almost all plant cells are totipotent, meaning thereby that each cell possesses the genetic information and cellular machinery to generate an entire organism. Micro-propagation, therefore, can be used to produce large number of plants, which are genetically identical to parent plants as well as to one another (Raveen et al., 1999).

India is endowed with rich treasure of aromatic plants of great industrial importance in its forests, wetlands and marine areas. India is among the 12 mega biodiversity centers of the world, which accounts for about 8 percent of the total biodiversity recorded so far. Despite of having only 2.4 percent land area of the world, India has been divided into 16 Agroclimatic zones having about 49000 plant species. Out of which 15000 species belong to medicinal and aromatic plants group. Out of these, 1500 medicinal and aromatic plants have identified, but only 500 species are commonly used in the preparation of ISM&H drugs. Besides, more than 150 plant species have been found endangered and are at the verge of extinction.
Indian export of raw drugs based on medicinal and aromatic plants has grown steadily at 25 % over the last few years. WHO has forecasted that the global market for herbal products is expected to be around US$ 5 trillion by 2050, and further emphasized the need for revitalization, and expansion of traditional system of medicines. But merely 150 medicinal and aromatic plants species are being reported to be used commercially on fairly large scale (Chandel et al.,1996).
The global market in plant based pharmaceuticals in growing rapidly day-byday leading to a sizeable increase in demand for herbal plants. Even today, 80-90% of naturally growing wild populations have remained the main source of raw materials used for drugs in India without applying scientific management techniques essential to sustain the growth and preserve useful properties essential to determine the efficacy of the medicines. The wild source is now being depleted and exploited without scientific harvesting techniques/ practices.

The aromatic plants are the valuable source for flavours, fragrances and other pharmaceutical products. The aromatic plants possess odoriferous and volatile substances, which occur in the form of essential oils, gum exudate, balsam and oleo-resin. The chemical nature of these aromatic substances may be due to a variety of complex chemical compounds. Natural essential oils comprising a complex mixture of aroma chemicals, which are difficult to reconstitute in the chemical industry, fetch very high prices. India has a long perfumery tradition that dates back to over 5,000 years in Indus Valley Civilization. In the excavation of Harrappa and Mohanjodaro, a water distillation still and receiver have been recorded, whose shape resemble to the deg and bhabka currently used by attaries (traditional perfumers) of Kannauj in India (Gupta and Chadha, 1995).
Aromatic plants are very important part of agriculture and have been grown in India for their fragrance and therapeutic use from ages. Presently, several aromatic plants are in use for medication have come from our ancestors, inhabiting in different countries. The recent advances made in chemical and instrumentation technology led to the identification and isolation of principal chemical compounds diversely used in medicines, food, cosmetics, toiletries, bouquets, aerosols, paints, varnishes, insecticides etc (Arya et al., 2021). However, the perfumery and allied industries consume much larger amount of the natural fragrant material. Many of the aromatic plants are valued for naturally occurring essential oils and the bulk of the produce finds use in perfumery and the food flavouring industries.

Aromatic plants are the life line of essential oil trades all over the world. India is considered to be botanical garden on account of prevalence of rich plant biodiversity owing to varied topography and wide range of climatic conditions present in different parts of the country About 1300 plant species have been reported to be of aromatic value and 80 plant species are commercially grown and in high demand, but only 42 plant species
are being exploited by modern pharmaceutical and essential oil industries as a source of raw materials for a range of natural perfumes, flavours, cosmetics, food and flavouring and aroma–therapy.
Plant-genetic diversity is the key component of agricultural production system, and no natural evolutionary adjustment of the system to changing environment and biotic conditions would be possible without it. India is richly endowed with plant wealth, utilized either directly for cultivation or as source of useful traits for breeding improved varieties. Collection, conservation and sustainable use of available gene pool and their wild relatives require specific attention keeping in view their overall importance and significance in agriculture and food security vis-à-vis day–to-day needs.
Cultivation of aromatic plants having aroma due to presence of an essential
oil in their various parts needs to be made competitive against other seasonal crops, so that production from cultivated harvests are preferred over collections from the wild. There are possibilities of using the produce in cosmetic, perfumery and aromatherapy industries of several aromatic plants. So, the breeding strategy of aromatic crops should aim for improving the contents of therapeutic compounds, yield of grains, biomass yield, roots yield and oil quality & quantity.

The low productivity in guava because of traditional planting distance (6-7 m apart) with no canopy management practices. Guava under traditional and high density planting system, though it gives high yield during initial stage but as the tree advances in age light interception and aeration decreases inside the canopy due to shading and overcrowding, resulting low yields and poor quality. In order to develop efficient canopy architecture for HDP and traditional planting system, the ICAR-CISH has standardized training system and canopy management with objective to have sustained high yield and quality of guava.
Guava bears flower on current shoots produced on mature wood laterally or terminally. In general flowers are produced in the leaf axils in 1 or 2-3 in cluster. The crop load depend on number of new shoots, hence more new shoots resulting more fruiting surface area.
High Density Planting System
Accommodation of more plants per unit area is known as high density planting system. Since guava respond well to pruning and fruiting starts 40-50 days after pruning and more new shoots emerged on which more flowers and fruits appears, thus yield increased. For successful HDP suitable canopy shape and its management is prerequisite. Guava is usually planted 6-7 m distance accommodating 277 to 204 plants per hectare the yield vary 35-80 kg/tree with yield per hectare 15-12 t/ha. In traditional planting density usually fruiting takes place on high on the tree.

Introduction
Horticulture crops hold significant importance for their economic, nutritional, environmental, and aesthetic contributions. They contribute to agricultural GDP, create employment opportunities, and provide income for farmers and other stakeholders along the value chain. Horticultural crops often have highvalue market demand, leading to increased profitability for farmers and rural communities. The horticultural crops, including fruits, vegetables, nuts, and medicinal, spices are rich sources of essential nutrients, vitamins, minerals and dietary fiber. They contribute to a balanced and nutritious diet, promoting good
health and preventing various diseases. Consumption of horticultural crops is linked to reduced risks of chronic diseases, including heart disease and certain types of cancer. These crops have environmental benefits. They contribute to biodiversity conservation by providing habitats for various species and supporting beneficial insects and pollinators. Additionally, horticultural practices such as agroforestry, crop diversification, and organic farming methods can enhance soil health, reduce erosion, promote water conservation, and mitigate climate change impacts. Adak and Pandey (2018) emphasised soil management of horticultural crops for attaining food and nutritional security of farm women. Babu et al. (2022) explained scientific interventions for enhancing productivity and profitability of farmers’ engaged in horticultural sector while Gundappa et al. (2016c) recommended management protocols for effective controls of mango hoppers to growers. Even, digital solutions are now-a-days is being tried to improve economic prosperity of fruit growers (Verma and Adak, 2021). Horticulture crops contribute to food security by diversifying thefood supply. They provide an array of options beyond staple crops, ensuring a varied and nutritious diet for individuals and communities.

Introduction
Horticulture is distinct from other economic sectors as its output is heavily reliant on weather conditions. The degree of success of horticultural production and economics is decided to a large extent by how well weather conditions corresponding to the crop’s optimal requirements are best utilized to raise the crops. Also, how successfully adverse weather circumstances, such as moisture, thermal, wind, radiation and biotic stresses were handled to minimize adversity. It is well understood that variability in weather elements (particularly rainfall and temperature) is the primary cause of inter-annual variability in crop output. The onset of weather extremes (dry spells, droughts, floods, heat waves, and hailstorms) has a negative impact on horticultural yield, resulting in a low level of productivity. Furthermore, weather can have an impact on output at multiple levels (vegetative stage, harvest, transportation, storage, etc.). Flooding, droughts, heat waves, cold spells, hailstorms, and other natural calamities pose significant risks to farms. These natural catastrophes can lead to lower yields, leaving uninsured farmers with little income for the season. Farmers often plant low-risk, low-return crops (such as early maturing varieties that are drought-resistant) to deal with erratic weather rather than investing in more profitable crops that are more sensitive to weather fluctuations and extremes. Thus, atmospheric stress has significant impacts on the food ecosystem (Bal and Minhas, 2017; MANAGE, 2018).

Introduction
Agriculture plays a vital role in global food security and economic development. However, in many regions, agricultural productivity is hindered by various challenges, including the presence of high soil salinity in agroecological systems (Singh, 2009). Saline agroecological systems are found in various regions worldwide, including coastal areas, arid and semi-arid regions, and areas affected by improper irrigation practices. These systems are characterized by high soil salinity levels, which can have detrimental effects on crop growth, nutrient availability and plant water uptake (Rai et al., 2020). Addressing these challenges requires specialized knowledge and tailored strategies to ensure sustainable agricultural practices in such environments (Dagar et al., 2019;
Sethi et al., 2016). Farm advisory and resource management services play a critical role in assisting farmers in saline agroecological systems by providing expert guidance, information dissemination, capacity building, and policy support (Adak et al., 2020). Farm advisory can play a crucial role in helping farmers understand the intricacies of saline agroecological systems, including the causes of soil salinity, its effects on crop performance, and the necessary strategies for managing these challenges effectively. Farm advisory can assist farmers in selecting suitable crop varieties that exhibit tolerance to high salinity levels. This requires comprehensive knowledge of salt-tolerant crops and and nutritional needs. Providing information on the performance and market
demand of different crop varieties enables farmers to make informed decisions about crop selection, optimizing productivity in saline agroecological systems (Kumar et al., 2020; Singh et al., 2021). It can offer guidance on crop management practices tailored to saline environments by providing recommendations on irrigation scheduling, water management techniques, and appropriate fertilization strategies to minimize salt accumulation and maximize crop yields. Helping farmers implement best practices for s

Introduction
Farm advisories have played a key role in transforming India’s agriculture, helping the country shift from a food deficit to a surplus nation. The Indian public agricultural extension system has been instrumental in this transformation through Green Revolution in the 1960s, but by the end of the 1970s, its role had started to decline. Critics argued that the system had become a monolithic organization without clear objectives (Babu et al., 2013). According to NSSO data, in 2004, public extension services in India, including the Krishi Vigyan Kendra, extension workers, field demonstrations and study tours, reached to less than ten percent of farmers. Instead, farmers relied mostly on other progressive farmers (17%) and input dealers (13%) for information, while mass media including radio, television and newspaper played a significant role reaching to more than thirty percent farmers (Mkhize and Zhou, 2012; Meena et al., 2022a). One of the major constraints in agricultural extension services (AES) in the country is the shortage of extension staff. According to a report, in 2012-13, a single extension functionary served 1,162 operationalholdings, whereas the recommended ratio was 1:400 in hilly areas, 1:750 in irrigated areas, and 1:1000 in rain-fed areas. Input dealers often provide manipulated information specific to the crops grown by farmers, affecting their decision-making process.

Introduction
Forecasting of future weather conditions are based upon the collection and analysis of meteorological observations. With the help of advanced computing system and satellite data, the accuracy of weather forecasting is improving day by day. Weather forecasts may be classified according to the space and time scale of the predicted phenomena. With advanced technology, the spatial resolution of accurate forecast is enhanced and India Meteorological Department (IMD) has started to issue the Block-level forecast. The meteorological phenomenon can be distinguished among three classes of phenomena with a scale that is larger than the turbulent microscale: the mesoscale, synoptic scale, and planetary scale (Geer et al., 2018). Considering the variability of agro-climatic condition of India, the micro-level weather based agro-advisory has great importance to enhance the farm income. IMD has initiated the Block-level Agromet Advisory Services (AAS) in collaboration with Indian Council of Agricultural Research through establishment of District Agromet Units (DAMUs) at various Krishi Vigyan Kendra’s (KVK). Improvisation of the existing District-level Agromet Advisory Services (AAS) and starting of Block-level services are the basic objectives of DAMU. The District Agromet Units will act as nodal centre to prepare and disseminate the crop and locationspecific AAS to farmers at block level. Apart from this, the micro-level Agromet Advisory Service was implemented at NICRA (National Innovation on Climate Resilient Agriculture) villages through a network project of Indian  Council of Agricultural Research (Banerjee et al, 2018; Chakraborty et al., 2018). As a part of the nation-wide program, the feasibility of village level agromet advisory has been assessed. Thus, the importance of micro-level  agromet advisory and advisory on extreme weather events are discussed in this chapter.

Introduction
Management of abiotic stresses in fruit orchards are essential and key issue for sustaining productivity. Worldwide fruit consumption has increased significantly because of the new recognitions of its broad relevance for health, nutrition and livelihood (Lansky and Newman, 2007). Fruits like pomegranate, grapes, dragon fruit, mango and sapota are being grown in tropical humid to dry as well as arid and semi-arid climates of India, especially in states like Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Gujarat. Significant cultivars such as Bhagwa of pomegranate, Hapus, Kesar, Langra, Banganpalli, Totapuri of mango and Kallipati, Cricket ball of Sapota are being dominantly grown in these areas. Area under pomegranate was 2.62 lakh ha in 2018-19, producing 30.04 lakh MT at a productivity of 11.58  ha-1 with an export of 80.5 thousand MT during 2019-20 (Maity et al., 2020). The estimated area under grapes, mango, pomegranate and sapota in India is 0.14, 2.29, 0.26, 0.08 million ha, respectively whereas production estimates are reported to be 31.25, 204. 44, 23.15 and 10.03 million MT, respectively (NHB 2019-20 2nd estimate). Besides area of dragon fruit in India is rapidly expanding due to its high nutritional content, antioxidant properties, and market opportunities, covering around 20 thousand ha with annual production of 0.3 million MT. Despite the fact that >15 species of Hylocereus have been reported; only 3 to 4 are under cultivation. Among these, white flesh (H. undatus) occupied more than half of the area. However, the current premium pricing and consumer demand for pink flesh may shift cultivation to H. polyrhizus. Furthermore, species with yellow peel and white flesh (H. megalanthus) is now being cultivated. In this context, the issuances of agro-advisory services to farmers are essential for adopting time bound management protocols (Adak et al.,2018a). The importance of this scientific management is significantly linked with the fruit business both in domestic market and foreign export. Therefore, it is of great importance for advisory, training, farmers-scientific interaction and other human resource management programmes to sensitize and develop trained man power sufficiently which contributes to the horticultural growth and development. In this backdrop, fruit orchards and their scientific management is discussed in this chapter with special reference to abiotic and biotic stress management in Pune region of Maharashtra.

Introduction
Spices have been considered significant in the culinary art from time immemorial. India, “The Homeland of Spices” is one among the largest producers, consumers and exporters of spices as well as spice products. Spices comprise different plant components such as floral parts or fruits or berries or seeds or rhizomes or roots or leaves or kernel or aril or bark or bulbs. The recorded history of the use of spices dates back to 5000 years or so from the Egyptian or at the most from the Indus valley civilization. Spices are used for flavouring, seasoning and imparting aroma in various cuisines. Besides these inherent qualities, some of them are known to be fungistatic, antimicrobial or antibiotic. They are also processed into numerous ‘value added’ products such as oleoresins, essential oils, curry powder etc. Black pepper, cardamom and turmeric are the major spice crops and its production and marketing are the main economy stays of lakhs of people of the country. Billions of rupees are involved in domestic trading and foreign export. Therefore, it is highly imperative for farmers to adopt the advanced practices to sustain spices productivity. Even, additional income could be generated from the intercropping of spices from the interspaces in mango orchards (Shukla and Adak, 2020). Thus the present chapter included all aspects of production to protection and value addition for  the benefits of growers.

Standard Operating Protocol for Export of Banana
Banana is one of the important fruit grown in India, as far as its export is concerned it is very limited which is below 1%. For export market it should be harvested at 85% maturity or the bunch is ready to harvest in 80-82 days after shooting initiation. Bunches are to be harvested carefully with two people. One person cut the hand and another person put the bunch onto the padding shoulder. Bunches should be slant cut with sickle shaped sharp knife free from any contamination. For export purpose banana fingers should be square, lie close together, hard, clean and free from any infestation and mucilaginous thread of pulp should be 4-5 cm in length. Skin should not be separated from pulp and no brown spot under the skin. De-handing must be done with sharp chisel type de-handing tool, by leaving maximum crown attached to the hand. The crown should be cut evenly; otherwise its outer finger may be detached. Other way to De-handing by using the nylon thread. It is easy method and it allows maximum crown attach with the land with minimum latex flow. The hands should be carefully paced in clean water which has alum 1 gm litre-1 or sodium hypochlorite (200 ppm) as surfactant for removing the latex and killing the micro-organism after that fruit must be packed in 20-25 kg capacity crates having foam in bottom and in between hands also. The most effective control of post harvest diseases and control of ripening of banana is treating the hands with 1.0% CISH METWASH an organic formulation for 30-60 seconds after that it should be carefully removed from this organic formulation and keep it in front of high speed fan for drying.

Among subtropical fruit crops mango, guava, bael and aonla are among the most important ones. The productivity of these crops is affected by many factors, among which diseases have their own economic significance. The crops use to suffer from a large number of diseases, however, economically important diseases having significance in agro-advisory are mentioned below.
Mango Wilt and Decline
The mango wilt disease caused by Ceratocystis fimbriata is one of the most devastating diseases (Shukla et al., 2015, 2018b, 2020; Shukla, 2020). Association of Berkeleomyces basicola and Lasidiplodia theobromae in wilt, decline and branch drying has also been observed. Symptoms: Ceratocystis infection on the trees causes dark staining of the affected wood, exudation of gum, leaf drying and ultimately death of the tree (Al Adawi et al., 2003; Shukla et al., 2018b). Later symptoms include vascular discolouration beneath the gummosis (Masood et al., 2008; Shukla et al., 2018b). The symptoms may appear in the form of sudden wilt, decline or branch drying and accordingly the whole tree or branch may die within a period of a fortnight to six months of appearance of first symptom.

Introduction
Mangoes (Mangifera Indica L.), often referred to as the “king of fruits,” are celebrated for their rich flavour, nutritional value, and versatility in culinary applications (Swaroop et al., 2018). Globally, mangoes hold a significant economic and cultural position. Mangoes are grown in over 90 countries, with India, China, and Thailand being leading producers. They contribute
significantly to the agricultural economies of these and other tropical and subtropical regions (Makarabbi, 2023). Mangoes are a major export commodity for many countries, generating substantial foreign exchange. For instance, India’s mango exports account for a sizable share of the global mango market, valued at millions of dollars annually. In many developing countries, mango farming supports millions of smallholder farmers, providing employment and a source of income (Thakor, 2019). Mangoes are enjoyed in numerous forms— fresh, dried, as juices, pickles, and chutneys. They are also a key ingredient in various traditional dishes and desserts across different cultures. Mangoes play a central role in several cultural festivals and rituals, symbolizing prosperityand good fortune in countries like India and the Philippines. Mangoes are rich in essential vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, including vitamins A and C, folate, and fiber. Their consumption is associated with various health benefits, such as improved immunity, digestive health, and skin care (Yahia et al., 2023). While mangoes offer significant benefits, their cultivation faces several challenges, primarily due to pest infestations that can severely impact both yield and fruit quality. Effective management of these pests is crucial to ensure sustainable mango production (Singh and Baradevanal, 2021).

Introduction
Mango (Mangiferaindica L) known as “the king of fruits” and “Apple of the Tropics” is most popular fruit in the tropics and sub-tropics. It moved from India to different countries and has gained popularity around the world. It has long been associated with the Indian culture and religious functions. Among different states, Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh constitute 23.64 per cent and 22.99 per cent share in the total mango, respectively, in the country. In 2023, Mango production had a total export volume of 78.56 billion MT. India is the biggest mango producer with a total production volume of 25 million MT of mangoes during the year. The top 10 mango producers in 2023 include India (25 million MT), China (3.8 million MT), Indonesia (3.6 million MT), Pakistan (2.7 million MT), Mexico (2.4 million MT), Brazil (2.1 million tons), Malawi (1.7 million MT), Thailand (1.6 million MT), Bangladesh (1.5 million MT) and Vietnam (1.4 million MT). As regards world-wide mango exports, Mexico is the biggest mango exporter with total exports worth $576.36 million in 2023. It was noted that Mexico’s mango exports increased by 5.09% from the previous year. The top 10 mango exporting countries in 2023 include the following: