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Sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas (Linn.) originated in northwestern South America around 8000 - 6000 BC. The plant is a dicotyledonous, herbaceous, trailing vine which is the only economically important member of the family Convolvulaceae. The plant is generally characterised by starchy, succulent and tuberous storage roots; alternating palmately lobed leaves and medium sized sympetalous flowers which grow individually and vary in colour from white to varying degrees of purple (Austin et al., 1991).

Moringa oleifera Linn. belongs to the family Moringaceae, that consists of only one genus with about 13 species of deciduous trees (Keay, 1989). It is believed to be the native of India-Pakistan-Nepal borders, but now is becoming widely distributed and grown in several countries, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions (Satti et al., 2013).

Curry leaf, Murraya koenigii (Linn.) is one of the most important plants exclusively known for its culinary and medicinal value. Leaves of the plant are widely used for flavouring food in Indian cookery. Leaves are also used in many Indian Ayurvedic and Unani prescriptions (Joseph and Peter, 1985). The whole plant including leaves, stems, flower, fruits and roots are used as tonic, stimulant, anti-flatulent, anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant (Khan et al., 1997) and anti-carcinogenic (Khanum et al., 2000).

Coriander, Coriandrum sativum L. is an erect annual herb belongs to the family Apiaceae. Coriander may also be referred to as Cilantro, Chinese parsley or Dhania. In India it is cultivated in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh etc. The leaves of the plant are variable in shape, broadly lobed at the base of the plant. Leaves are slender and feathery higher on the flowering stems.

Leafy vegetables are the herbs that are grown for their edible greens (leaves). Leafy vegetables are also called pot-herbs, greens, vegetable greens, and leafy greens are plant leaves eaten as a vegetable, sometimes accompanied by tender petioles and shoots. They come from a very wide variety of plants. As per Singh and Arora (1978), about 220 species belonging to the families, Amaranthaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Araceae, Asteraceae, Convolvulaceae, Malvaceae, Nymphalaceae, Papilionaceae etc. occur in India.

Elephant foot yam, Amorphophallus campanutatus Blume (= Arum campanulatum Roxb.) belongs to the family Araceae. It is also known as elephant yam, Elephant bread, Suran, Sweet yam etc. It is a native to Tropical Asia and is found throughout the plains of the Indian sub-continent and some other parts of South East Asia and Africa growing both wild as well as cultivated.

Protected cultivation practices can be defined as a cropping technique wherein the micro environment surrounding the plant body is controlled partially or fully as
per plant need during their period of growth to maximize the yield and resource saving. Cultivation of vegetables under protective structures such as net houses has become popular in recent years (Kaur et al., 2004; Cheema et al., 2004; Singh et al., 2004).

Endowed with varied agro-climatic situations, topography and soil type, India has been a leading vegetable producing country in the world occupying the second
position in vegetable production after China with an annual production of 87.53 million tonnes from 5.86 million hectares having a share of 14.4 per cent to the world production. With commercial cultivation of as many as 61 annual and 4 perennial vegetables, India is the most diverse vegetable growing country in the world (Prakash et al., 2006).

Vegetables are the largest important constituent of our daily diet as well as high value cash crops for small, marginal and large scale growers. These are rich in proteins, vitamins, minerals and dietary fibre which are essential for our normal body functions, prevention of malnutrition and deficiency diseases. Vegetables also play key role in neutralizing the acids produced during digestion of fatty foods and also provide valuable roughages which help in movement of food in intestine.

Mites are small arthropods belonging to the sub-class Acari (also known as Acarina) and the class Arachnida. The scientific discipline devoted to the study of ticks and mites is called acarology. In soil ecosystems, mites are favored by high organic matter content and by moist conditions, wherein they actively engage in the fragmentation and mixing of organic matter (Nyle and Ray, 2009).

Biological control is a strategy which employs utilization of natural enemies to reduce the damage caused by noxious organisms to tolerable levels (De Bach and Rosen, 1991). This is the most benign method for reducing pest population in vegetable ecosystem. It opens an amicable platform for production of organic vegetables with good export value. Since the late 1950s, much of the insect control in vegetables has been based on the use of synthetic chemical insecticides.

Fresh vegetables are essential part of a healthy diet as it is an important source of vitamins, minerals and fibers. The nutritional content of vegetables varies considerably, though generally they contain little protein, fat and varying proportions of vitamins such as Vitamin A, Vitamin K and Vitamin B6, pro- vitamins, dietary minerals and carbohydrates (Woodruff, 1995; Whitaker, 2001).

To reduce the dependence on hazardous pesticides in modern agriculture, one of the most promising ways is to use insect-resistant cultivars. When available, planting resistant cultivars is one of our most effective, economically viable and environmentally sound tactics. The underlying concept of using host resistance to our advantage comes from the knowledge that most plants and animals are resistant to most potential insect attackers.

The stiffness of starch gels from different starches at 5% concentration was shown in decreasing order of stiffness in the following table. Of the cereal starches corn starch gel was firmest followed by wheat and rice starch gels. Among the roots and tubers starches, potato yielded a ropy paste, arrowroot a soft paste while cassava starch gave viscous fluid.

Leavening agents produce carbon dioxide which helps to give characteristic structure to bread cakes and biscuits etc. In the case of cakes, leavening is produced by air entrapped in the dough due to the presence of egg in the mix. The important groups of leavening agent’s are l. baker’s yeast 2. Chemical leavening agents

1. Clean and wash the pulses, Mix the pulses with water, soak for 1 hour, 3 hours, 6hours, 9hours and overnight.
2. After soaking drain the water wash thoroughly and add fresh water keep it for boiling/cooking.
3. Study the effect of Acid and effect of Alkali on cooking time of pulses.

Procedure: weigh vegetables 20 g (for each variation) Water: add sufficiently
1. Cook the vegetable in water in a pan according to the “cooking time” variations given in the table 1 and note down the color, texture and flavor changes takes place during cooking for each variation and record the observations

Physical Properties of milk
Procedure: Collect different types of market milk samples and study the  properties of milk. Boil the milk and note down the properties given in table 1 and record the observations

Ingredients; milk fat (cream)-12%, non-fat milk solids (skim milk powder)-11%, sugar-15%, stabilizer-0.2%, emulsifier-0.2%, flavors-a pinch Basic ice cream preparation: 1. Mix the ingredients 2. Pasteurization 3. Homogenization 4. Ageing (allowing to standby 24 hours at 4.440C) 5. Freezing (the mix is frozen at 5.5560c) 6. The freezing must be quick in order to prevent formation of large crystals. The ice cream is semi solid at this temperature. 7. The ice cream is finally frozen to a hard mass at about -30C.

In order to assess the quality characteristics of eggs the book reference values were taken for comparison

(Ref: 1997-2016 American Meat Science Association)
The methods used for cooking meat can be divided into two groups:
1. Dry heat methods
2. Moist heat methods

Poultry meat-50 g for each method
Cook the poultry meat according to the methods given in the table and record the cooking effects

Takes clean, washed and edible fish-50-100 g for each method of cooking. And cook the fish according to the methods given table and record the characteristics of cooked fish.

Procedure: Measurement of smoke point of given oils: Heat the given oils in a deep frying pan till fumes come out from oil. Record the temperature when the fumes come out and noted it as a ‘smoke point’. Cool the oil by keeping oil pan at room temperature. After cooling repeat the heating of same oils 2nd and 3rd time to measure the smoke point and record the observations

Pure sugar when heated melts at about 160-1800c. at about 2100c sucrose loses water and becomes caramel.

Sensitivity-Threshold tests Sensitivity tests are conducted to assess the ability of individuals to detect different tastes, odors and feel the presence of specific factors in.

Formulation & method of bread making Baking is an exact science that requires precise measuring and accuracy. Accuracy is crucial in baking because most baked products are made from the same basic ingredients: flour, liquid, fat, sugar, salt etc. the difference between baked products are often the proportion of each ingredients in the formula. If the proportions are off, you will end up with a different product or an unacceptable product.

Drying is one of the oldest methods of preserving food. It is usually accomplished by the removal of water. Dried foods are preserved for long storage time because the available moisture is very low, so that the micro organisms cannot grow and enzyme activity is controlled. It is done by many methods. 1. Sun drying 2. Using mechanical dryers.

Selection fresh fruits/frozen stored fruits/chilled fruits/fruit pulp/sulphited fruit. Wash them to remove the dairt, dust, stems, leaves, stalks, undesirable portions.

Pickling is the process of preserving or extending the shelf life of food by either anaerobic fermentation in brine or immersion in vinegar. The pickling procedure typically affects the food’s texture and flavor. The resulting food is called a pickle, or, to prevent ambiguity, prefaced with pickled. Foods that are pickled include vegetables, fruits, meats, fish, dairy and eggs.

Yogurt is a fermented milk product that contains the characteristic bacterial cultures such as Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus. All yogurts must contain at least 8.25% solids not fat.

The RTS beverage was prepared by using freshly prepared carrot juice, sour orange juice, water and sugar as per FPO specification.

The two limbs of Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal form parts of North Indian Ocean (NIO) on the left and right respectively. Though the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal are located in the same latitudinal belt and receive the same amount of solar radiation, oceanographically these two basins exhibit remarkable differences. The reason for it is Bay of Bengal is shallow and less saline due to heavy river water discharge and Arabian Sea is deep and cold and more saline.

To understand the movement of a ocean particle, We have to consider different forces. The forces that are working are pressure gradient force, coriolis force, acceleration due to gravity and friction. The summation of all these forces is balanced by total force. As we consider unit mass, the force is equal to acceleration. The total equation is called equation of motion.

Inertial motion is typically excited when the surface currents are impulsively excited by wind forcing. If the wind were to remain steady—then the currents would eventually reach equilibrium and the time-dependent term would go to zero. But if the winds blew for a few hours and then turned off then the current would be still in motion for some time even if there would be no forcing due to turning off winds.

It is a non-accelerated frictionless horizontal motion where pressure gradient balances coriolis acceleration as shown in Fig.4.1 in both the hemispheres.

The general distribution of density in the oceans is like a two layer ocean as shown in Fig.5.1 below. A layer of more or less uniform density (nearly vertical) near the surface called as isopycnal layer and a deeper layer of higher density below with sharp increase of density is called as pycnocline.

The following scientists greatly contributed to the wind driven circulation. Out of all Ekman, Sverdrup, Stommel and Munk are most important and ever remembered for their work. So in the following pages discussion is mostly concentrated on these four scientists theories.

Wind stress at the sea surface not only causes horizontal movement of water (Ekman Net transport), but also leads to vertical motion (Ekman Pumping). This horizontal movement of water leads to the occurrence of upwelling and down welling throughout the oceans both at coastal boundaries as well as in the open ocean. As divergence of surface water causes rising, convergence of the surface water causes sinking. This rising and sinking of water are called upwelling and down welling.

Harald Ulrik Sverdrup (1888-1957), a Norwegian who began his career studying meteorology with Vilhelm Bjerknes in Oslo, was appointed director of Scripps Oceanographic Institution in 1936. His 1947 paper “Wind-driven currents in a baroclinic ocean”, which showed the link between meridional currents and the curl of the wind stress, began the modern era of dynamical oceanography and initiated large-scale modeling of ocean circulation.

While circulation is a measure of tendency of fluid rotation, vorticity is the same property of fluid for an infinitely small area.

Sverdrup’s contribution could not take into account of the western boundary and so could not explain about the circulation what happened along the west coast of the ocean. Thus his circulation, as shown in Fig.8.1c in the chapter 8, is incomplete. This problem was solved by an American Oceanographer, Henry Stommel, in 1948.

Munk (1950) built upon Sverdrup’s theory, using both the vertical and lateral eddy viscosity. Munk combined the basic features contributed by Ekman, Sverdrup and Stommel to provide the first comprehensive solution of the wind driven circulation, using the real wind field Munk included the effect of eddy viscosity in both the horizontal and the vertical dimensions (both A_h and A_z).

As water consists of two positively charged hydrogen ions and a single negatively charged oxygen ion, water is arranged as a polar molecule having positive and negative sides. This molecular polarity leads to water’s high dielectric constant (ability to withstand or balance an electric field). Water is able to dissolve many substances because the polar water molecules align to shield each ion, resisting the recombination of the ions.

The wind blows over the water, changing its surface into ripples and then to waves. Thus most of the normal waves are wind-driven. As waves grow in height, the wind pushes them along faster and higher. Sometimes waves can become unexpectedly strong and destructive. As waves enter shallow water, they become taller and slow down, eventually break on the shore.

Small amplitude wave theory was based on the premise that motions are sufficiently small to allow the free surface boundary condition to be linearized. Finite amplitude wave theories or Stokes’ higher order theories are similar as per the concept in which additional higher order terms that were neglected in the Airy’s theory are included. In general, the higher the order of the wave theory, higher will be the limiting wave height for which it would be valid.

In order to understand the generation of tides first we should understand the motions of earth with respect to sun and moon. Tides are affected by the orbit of the moon around the earth and, less so, by the earth around the sun. The orbital motion of earth with respect to sun and the orbital motion of moon with respect to earth are as shown in Fig.15.1.

The word estuary is derived from the latin word ‘aestus’ meaning tide and the adjective ‘aestuarium’ means tidal. This means low ground covered by the sea at high water.

The world population is expected to reach 9 billion by 2050. This population growth of 2 to 3 billion people over the next 30 years, combined with the changing diets, would result in a predicted increase in food demand of around 70% by 2050 (UNDESA 2009).

Insecticides are one of the key control measures to combat the insect pests for sustainable agricultural production in the world. Synthetic insecticides have been only strategy to control the resurgent and resistant insect population in of high value crops not only in India but also in the world. The advent of synthetic insecticides in the mid-20th century made the control of insect and other arthropod pests easy and much more effective, and such chemicals remain essential in modern agriculture despite their environmental issues.