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Bovine babesiosis is a significant febrile disease, primarily affecting cattle and buffalo, transmitted by ticks. The disease is marked by the rapid proliferation of parasites within the bloodstream, leading to the extensive destruction of red blood cells. This results in a cascade of clinical symptoms, including anemia, jaundice, hemoglobinuria, and splenomegaly, with the potential for severe cases to culminate in death. The acute form of bovine babesiosis is particularly severe, often characterized by these pronounced symptoms, which can lead to rapid deterioration in the affected animals. Babesiosis is not merely an acute illness but can also persist as a chronic infection. Chronic bovine babesiosis is typified by ongoing anemia and varying degrees of weight loss, reflecting the enduring impact of the parasite within the host. Economically, this disease poses a formidable challenge, especially in regions where cattle are most susceptible. Since the first description of Babesia bovis by Victor Babes in Romania in 1888, numerous distinct species have been identified, each contributing to the global burden of this disease (Hunfeld et al., 2008). The impact of bovine babesiosis on livestock improvement efforts in endemic regions is profound. The introduction of susceptible, naive animals into these areas often leads to significant losses, as these animals are highly vulnerable to the disease.

Abstract

Bacilli, a group of endospore forming bacteria present in soil, contribute directly or indirectly to crop productivity. Bacilli have many physiological unique traits like multilayered cell wall, stress resistant endospore formation, secretion of peptide antibiotics, peptide signal molecules, extracellular enzymes, which make them ubiquitous and assist to their survival under adverse environmental conditions for long time.

Fusarium wilt of carnation caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.spp dianthi causes severe yield losses under protected cultivation. For the management of Fusarium wilt, 27 isolates of Bacillus strains were isolated from the rhizosphere of different crops including carnation. Among various species of Bacillus, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (BSC7) was identified as a most virulent antagonistic bacterial isolate. Studies on antagonism under Environmentally Controlled Scanning Electron Microscopy (ESEM), depicted the presence of rod shaped bacterial cells with biofilm formation at 44847x. Detection for the presence of antibiotic biosynthetic genes reflected the presence of surfactin, iturin, bacillomycin and fengycin genes. The 24 isolates of Bacillus spp. showed positive reaction for surfactin gene. Nineteen isolates were amplified for Iturin A gene except BS5, BS9, BSC1, BSC2, BSC11, BSD1 and BSD2. Strains of B. subtilis BS1, BS2, BS5, BS6 and BS8 expressed Bacillomycin D gene. The genomic DNA of strains BS1, BS2, BS4, BS6, BS7 BS8, BS11 and BS14 showed positive for Fengycin D gene. The isolate of B. subtilis BS2 showed positive reaction for four genes namely surfactin, iturin, bacillomycin and fengycin.

In vitro screening of Bacillus, B. amyloliquefaciens (BSC7), P. aeruginosa (P1) and T. viride (TV1) showed highest inhibition against F.oxysporum f.sp.dianthi to an extent of 55.95, 55.29 and 81.61 per cent over the control respectively. The antifungal activity of antagonistic B. amyloliquefaciens BSC7 and T. viride TV1 against F.oxysporum f.sp. dianthi was confirmed under ESEM by observing disintegration, lysis and structural abnormalities of the hyphae of the pathogen at the zone of interaction.

In 1850, Bacillus anthracis was first reported by three individuals in two different countries i.e. Delafond (who may have found them as early as 1838) and Davaine in France, Pollender in Germany. However, they could not establish the relationship between the disease and the bacterium. Absolute proof of the anthrax etiology as B. anthracis was established by Robert Koch in 1876-77. The name Bacillus anthracis was first coined by Cohn (1875) and the disease ‘anthrax’ was first named by Hippocrates (5th century B.C.). In Greek language meaning of anthrax is ‘coal’ referring to the black coloured skin or blood in affected animals.

B. anthracis organism has certain historical importance:

a)   Anthrax is the first disease identified to be caused by a bacterium.

b)   Robert Koch first isolated the organism and reproduced the disease in experimental animals. He proposed his postulates (Koch’s postulate, 1876) based on his experiments related to this organism. It later became a fundamental milestone of all microbiological works related to the infectious diseases.

c)   Louis Pasteur first used heat attenuated culture of B. anthracis as vaccine in a group of sheep in 1881 at Pouilly-le-Fort. He cultured the organism at 42-43^oC in presence of oxygen. The bacteria did not produce spores and became attenuated.

d)         First concept of bacterial antagonism was provided by Louis Pasteur and Joubert based on their work on this organism. Injection of other unidentified bacteria along with B. anthracis can prevent anthrax in animals
.

B.anthracis causes anthrax in animals and Wool sorter’s disease, hide porter’s disease, Malignant Pustule in humans. B.cerus causes food poisoning in humans. Other bacillus in this group is non-pathogenic and they are called as anthracoids. B.licheniformis is an emerging pathogen and it is implicated in sporadic abortions in cattle and sheep.
Systematics
Domain : Bacteria
Phylum : Firmicutes
Class : Bacilli
Order : Bacillales
Family : Bacillaceae
Genus : Bacillus
Species : B. anthracis, B. cereus, B. subtilis, B. mycoides,
B. megaterium, B.mesentricus
Family Characters
They are gram +ve large rods, aerobic (facultative anaerobic), endospore forming, capsulated, mostly catalase positive and fermentative organisms. They are motile by peritrichous flagella.
Bacillus Anthracis
History
• Discovery of the anthrax bacillus is credited to Davaine and Rayer (1863 –1868).
• Considerable historic interest attached to anthrax bacilli;

The application of back-cross breeding first proposed by H. V. Harlan and M. N. Pope in 1922 provides a precise way of improving varieties that excel in a large number of attributes but are deficient in a few key characteristics. F. N. Briggs too started an extensive back-crossing programme to develop bunt resistant varieties of wheat in 1922. As the name implies, the back-cross method of breeding makes use of a series of back-crosses to the variety to be improved during which the character or characters in which improvement is sought is maintained by selection. At the end of back-crossing, the gene (or genes) being transferred will be heterozygous. Selfing at the end of last back- cross produces homozygosity for this gene pair and coupled with selection will result in a variety similar to the well adapted and recurrent parent but superior for the particular characteristic for which improvement programme was initiated.

In back-cross method of breeding, the adapted and highly desirable parent is called the recurrent parent and the source of desirable character being transferred is called as donor parent. It is most effective and easy to apply when the missing trait is qualitatively inherited, dominant and produces a phenotype that is readily observed in a hybrid plant. The procedure for transferring a recessive trait is similar to that for dominant trait but involves an additional step of selfing. Back-crossing is also used to transfer entire sets of chromosomes in a foreign cytoplasm to create a cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) genotype as has been practiced in maize, onion and wheat, etc. This is done by crossing the donor (of chromosomes) as male until all donor chromosome are recovered in the cytoplasm of the recurrent parent. Back-cross breeding has also been used to develop isogenic lines (lines that differ only in alleles at a specific locus) for traits like disease resistance and plant height, etc.

Backcross breeding is defined as system of breeding whereby recurrent backcrosses are made to one of the parents of a hybrid, accompanied by selection for a specific character or characters. It is basically applicable to self-pollinated crops and is precise way improving varieties that excel in large number of desirable attributes but lack in a few characteristics. This method makes use of a series of backcrosses to the variety to be improved during which character for which improvement is sought is maintained by selection. At the end of the backcrossing, the gene to be transferred remains in heterozygous condition and selfing after the last backcross produces homozygosity for the gene under transfer. As a result, the improved variety will remain like recurrent variety in terms of yield, adaptability, quality features, etc. will be superior for the character which was planned to be transferred from the donor parent.

The application of backcross breeding in plants was first proposed by H.V. Harlan and M.N. Pope in 1922. In principle, backcross breeding does not improve the genotype of the product, except for the substituted gene(s).

Plant biotechnology can be defined as the introduction of desirable traits into plants through plant tissue culture and genetic engineering techniques. The recombinant DNA technology is used to modify the expression of genes already present in the plants or to introduce new genes of other species with which the plant cannot be bred conventionally.

Globalization of economies and liberalization of trade has led an urgent need for prioritizing the potential areas for investment in order to earn handsome amount of income. Even the entrepreneurs, small as well as marginal farmers aspire to take advantage of global opportunity. Diversification to horticultural crops has been found to be best option as they make more profit, generate additional employment for rural masses and conserve natural resources. Agriculture plays a vital role in the Indian economy. Over 52 per cent of the rural households depend on agriculture as their principal means of livelihood. But unfortunately Indian farmers in general are small and marginal land holders with poor resources and realizing income mainly from cereal based production system, which is insufficient to improve their living standards. Agriculture, along with fisheries and forestry, accounts for one-third of the nation’s GDP and is its single largest contributor (www.indianbusiness.nic.in). GVA at Basic Prices for 2019-20 from ‘Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing’ sector is estimated to grow by 2.8 per cent as compared to growth of 2.9 per cent in 2018-19. The GVA estimates of this sector are based on 1^st advance estimates of agricultural production during Kharif season of 2019-20 obtained from the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmer Welfare. For Livestock sector, estimates of production of major livestock products (i.e. Milk, Egg, Meat and Wool) obtained from the Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying and Fish production data obtained from Department of Fisheries have been used. The crops including fruits and vegetables account for about 56 per cent, the livestock products 30 per cent and forestry & fisheries 14 per cent share of GVA in total GVA of ‘Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing’ sector [As per the estimates released by National Statistics Office, Ministry of Statistics and programme Implementation, GoI, 2020]. Agricultural exports constitute a fifth of the total exports of the country. In view of the predominant position of the Agricultural Sector, collection and maintenance of Agricultural Statistics assume great importance. In 2018-19, India achieved a record food grain production of 285.17 million tonnes beating the previous year’s (2017-18) 285.01 million tonnes, according to data provided by Department of Economics and Statistics (DES). Also, agricultural profitability has increased over the last decade with record increases in MSPs (minimum support prices) for agricultural produce for all covered crops.

A key challenge for the years to come is feeding a rapidly growing human population while lowering the impact of food production on the environment. This is particularly true for low and middle-income countries where the demand for animal protein is likely to rise and further increase several folds in existing environmental changes (e.g., droughts, floods, extensive wildfires) have in recent years led to major food crises. To achieve these goals, food production not only needs to be increased, but most of all, good husbandry practices must be followed to reduce its negative impacts on the environment. Several studies have suggested that shifting the human diet towards increased consumption of f ish and seafood could be a solution to the need for protein that would sustain human and environmental health. In fact, fish and seafood consumption is forecast to increase by 27% on the horizon of 2030, mostly sustained by the aquaculture sector, which is expected to grow by 62% during the same period. The aquaculture industry contributes significantly to livelihood, food security, and poverty alleviation, with over 100 million people estimated to rely on aquaculture for their living. Fish is a cheap source of animal protein, and the current per capita consumption of fish in India is around 9 kg per annum, which is compared to the 11 kg recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO). Presently, the contribution of the fisheries sector to the gross domestic product (GDP) and agriculture GDP has been estimated to be 1.2 and 4.2%, respectively.

The transformation of global agriculture, especially in the context of liberalized markets and increasing corporate involvement, has placed contract farming at the forefront of rural development discourse. Over the past few decades, contract farming has emerged as a strategic approach to address key challenges faced by smallholder farmers, including market uncertainty, lack of inputs and limited access to extension services. Particularly in the post-World Trade Organization (WTO) era, developing nations have witnessed a surge in contract farming initiatives due to their potential to ensure a consistent supply of high-quality produce, stabilize farmers’ incomes and integrate stallholders into the commercial agri-food economy. The appeal of contract farming lies in its dual benefits. For agribusiness firms, it reduces procurement risks and ensures better control over quality and production processes. For farmers, it offers pre-agreed pricing, input support and reliable market access, thereby mitigating the common risks associated with price volatility, resource scarcity and technical gaps. However, for contract farming to function effectively and deliver on its promises, certain preconditions must be met. A profitable market is the foremost requirement, as sponsors will only invest in regions where long-term returns are feasible. The physical and social environment must also be conducive to agricultural productivity and farmer cooperation. This includes factors such as geography, soil fertility, access to irrigation, infrastructure quality (roads, communication, electricity), land availability and cultural compatibility between the stakeholders. Government support is another critical pillar, encompassing both legal backing to enforce contracts and policy incentives that promote investment and risk-sharing. Furthermore, well-designed contract specifications-covering pricing structures, input provisions, managerial responsibilities and land-use terms-are essential to ensure transparency, enforceability and mutual trust. Despite its transformative potential, contract farming is not a one-size-fits-all solution. Its success hinges on a careful alignment of stakeholders’ interests, contextual understanding and supportive institutional frameworks. The

Backwardation : When a commodity is valued more highly in a spot market (that is, when it is for delivery today) than in a futures market (for delivery at some point in the future). Normally, interest costs mean that futures prices are higher than spot prices, unless the markets expect the price of the commodity to fall over time, perhaps because there is a temporary bottleneck in supply.

Balance of payments : The total of all the money coming into a country from abroad less all of the money going out of the country during the same period. This is usually broken down into the current account and the capital account. The current account includes : *visible trade (known as merchandise trade in the United States), which is the value of exports and imports of physical goods; *invisible trade, which is receipts and payments for services, such as banking or advertising, and other intangible goods, such as copyrights, as well as cross-border dividend and interest payments; *private transfers, such as money sent home by expatriate workers; official transfers, such as international aid. The capital account includes : *long-term capital flows, such as money invested in foreign firms, and profits made by selling those investments and bringing the money home; *short-term capital flows, such as money invested in foreign currencies by international speculators, and funds moved around the world for business purposes by multinational companies. These short-term flows can lead to sharp movements in exchange rates, which bear little relation to what currencies should be worth judging by fundamental measures of value such as purchasing power parity. As bills must be paid, ultimately a country’s accounts must balance (although because real life is never that neat a balancing item is usually inserted to cover up the inconsistencies).

Balanced budget : When total public-sector spending equals total government income during the same period from taxes and charges for public services. Politicians in some countries, such as the United States, have argued that government should be required to run a balanced budget in order to have sound public finances. However, there is no economic reason why public borrowing need necessarily be bad. For instance, if the debt is used to invest in things that will increase the growth rate of the economy—infrastructure, say, or education—it may be justified. It may also make more economic sense to try to balance the budget on average over an entire economic cycle, with public-sector deficits boosting the economy during recession and surpluses stopping it overheating during booms, than to balance it every year.

³Ex-Head & Principal Scientist, Dairy Extension Divison, Karnal, Haryana

INTRODUCTION

Backyard poultry production is an age old practice in rural India. Rural poultry farming in India contributes to about 40% of the national egg production. In ancient time poultry birds were reared for different purposes such as for its fighting ability. In old civilization, the cocks are known for their morning alarm and the selection is also done for these traits. Their fighting ability is more responsible for their spread than there nutritive value of the chickens. Backyard poultry farming is now gaining considerable momentum in the country and enables rural community to participate, in the economic, political and social sustainable development of the rural communities.

Backyard poultry farming is being recognized as important component of socio- economic improvement among the weaker section of society; specially rural youth, landless labour, small and marginal farmers. Backyard poultry generates self-employment, provides supplementary income with protein rich food at relatively low cost. Backyard poultry farming is the one among different enterprises in the present situation which gives some assured income to rural youths of the country. Before 1950, poultry keeping in India was largely a backyard venture. During last 3-4 decades Indian poultry industry has shown excellent growth. Poultry farming is a profitable venture as a means of livelihood and income prosperity for rural youth and farmers. The small and marginal farmers may choose backyard poultry farming alternative method for generating good income with their limited land and water use. Keeping in view of demand of poultry eggs and meat in the country and its potential for income and employment generation among rural youth, there is a need to increase the poultry production in the country.

Backyard farming is an unorganized sub sector of poultry industry. India has nearly 60 percent of its population living in rural areas. However, in the present scenario most of the commercial poultry production is concentrated in urban and semi urban areas due to high demand. Only 25 percent population living in urban area consumed about 75-80 percent of eggs and poultry meat. Nonavailability of poultry products and low purchasing power of the rural people devoid them of access to the highly nutritious products like egg and meat, thereby, resulting in malnutrition. Free range and small scale semi commercial
back-yard poultry production can be advantageously promoted in rural areas, as the large commercial poultry production continues to be concentrated in urban and semi-urban locations. It can be used as a powerful tool for alleviation of rural poverty, eradication of malnutrition and creation of gainful employment in vast rural areas (Sharma and Chatterjee, 2009; Rajkumar et al., 2010).
The most basic and simple backyard production system involves a few hens and a cockerel is essentially a closed system. Home-produced fertile eggs arehatched to provide replacements, birds feed by  scavenging or are provided with household scraps and crop by-products; there are virtually no veterinary inputs and the remaining eggs and meat produced are consumed within the household. Such very simple subsistence poultry production systems are probably quite rare. Producers with even slightly larger flocks, generate cash income from the sale of eggs and birds within the local community. Transactions may take place directly between producers and consumers, but traders and other market intermediaries may be involved, selling on to other sectors of the poultry industry. Village or backyard production systems are widely distributed and exist in both rural and urban areas. It is estimated that today in India, about 18 percent of total poultry output is derived from backyard production. 

Importance of Backyard Poultry Farming in India

Commercial chicken production in India has undergone a remarkable change in the last three decades. While India is among the top five chicken producing and top seven duck producing countries in the world, the gap between the demand and production is still alarming. Average per capita availability of eggs in big cities is 170 while it stands at 9 eggs per annum in the rural areas. Though the commercial poultry sector has made a stupendous progress over the years, the conventional free and backyard poultry farming remain neglected. Backyard poultry farming contributes around 11% to the national production while in certain states like U.P. around 60% of the poultry population is indigenous fowls reared under backyard system. The backyard sector contributed to 23 per cent of the total egg production in 2005-06.

Commercial chicken production is capital intensive and is generally concentrated in and around urban areas. There is a wide disparity in consumption of the poultry products between urban and rural population. Around 75% of country’s population living in the rural areas has limited access to the protein rich poultry products. Protein deficiency is quite common in the diets of rural people. Adoption of rural poultry farming may ameliorate the high incidence of protein hunger in growing children and pregnant women.

It has been seen that the commercial birds have poor immunity against common poultry diseases. As production is inversely proportional to the viability traits, the nutrients absorbed are mostly diverted for growth in commercial chicken. On the other hand, indigenous birds reared in rural areas are resistant to many diseases and pests. Unlike the local breeds maintained in villages, the commercial breeds require high level of input pertaining to feed and health care to maintain production and check mortality.

Bacteria

Definition

Bacteria belong to prokaryota which encompasses organisms with a primitive type of nucleus lacking a clearly defined membrane. The bacteria are smaller than fungi and measure about 0.5 to 1.0 x 2.0 to 5.0µ.

Introduction
Bacteria are single-celled prokaryotic organisms that can be both beneficial and harmful to plants. While many bacteria play essential roles in soil health and plant nutrition, certain pathogenic bacteria can cause severe diseases, leading to significant agricultural losses. Understanding the characteristics, life cycles, and management strategies for bacterial plant pathogens is crucial for effective disease control.
Characteristics and Morphology of Phytopathogenic Bacteria
General Characteristics
Phytopathogenic bacteria possess unique features that distinguish them from non-pathogenic strains:
• Cell Structure: Bacterial cells lack a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Their genetic material is located in a single circular chromosome.
• Cell Wall Composition: Most phytopathogenic bacteria have a rigid cell wall composed of peptidoglycan, which provides structural support and protection. The composition of the cell wall varies, leading to classifications as Gram-positive or Gram-negative bacteria.

Definition
Bacteria belong to proakaryota which encompasses organisms with a primitive type of nucleus lacking a clearly defined membrane .The bacteria are smaller than fungi and measure about 0.5 to 1.0 x 2.0 to 5.0μ.
Structure of bacteria
1. A bacterial cell consists of a cell wall and a compound membrane enclosing protoplasm.
2. The protoplasm contains the nucleus, vacuoles, mesosomes, lipids, polysaccharides, mitochondric granules, and spores.
3. Bacterial cells may have flagella, pili, fimbrae, and capsules on the outside.
4. The bacterial cell contains a characteristics cell wall. The cell wall of bacteria is composed of a peptidoglycan. It is composed of acetyleglucosamine and cetyle-muramic acid .
5. The rigid peptidoglycan layer is located.
6. The latter layer is composed of lipoprotein . It is common in gram negative bacteria.
7. Many bacteria possess other intracellular membrane systems such as mesosomes and chondrioids.
8. The mesosome structure is formed by an invagination of the cytoplasmic membrane.
9. Mesosomes serve for compartmentalization and integration of biochemical systems.

Size – Shapes - Arrangements – Morphology

Bacteria are very small, most being approximately 0.5 to 1.0 mm diameter. Smallest bacteria are Mycoplasmas, as small as 0.2 micrometers (almost as small as largest poxviruses).

Accepted wisdom is that bacteria are smaller than eukaryotes. But certain cyanobacteria are quite large; Oscillatoria cells are 7 micrometers diameter, size of red blood cells. And certain eukaryotes (e.g. Nanochlorum eukaryotum) are very small, only 1 to 2 micrometers, but true eukaryotes (nucleus, chloroplast, mitochondrion are present). So size difference is, like many generalizations, only a useful yardstick, not an absolute truth.

Epulopiscium fishelsoni, discovered in 1985 in intestinal tract of sturgeonfish, is an enormous, cigar-shaped cell, as large as 80 x 600 micrometers (that’s 0.6 mm, large enough to be seen by the naked eye). Amazingly, this cell is prokaryotic! Initial evidence by EM was hard to believe, but confirmed rRNA comparisons with other organisms, a cousin of Gram-positive Clostridium genus.

The relative size of the bacteria are as follows :