eChapters

The cytological insult due to exposure of different environmental pollutant viz. pesticides, herbicides etc. impose great loss to the vitality and health of the individuals. The basic pathophysiological distrubances following the expo sure of these deterrents to the different visceral organs leads to dysfunction of these organs. Imbalance between body’s antioxidant defense and peroxidation of the lipid layer of cells’ causing free radical generation is defined as Oxidative stress. Free radicals are the molecules or entity that contains one or more than one unpaired electron. Pathophysiology of several diseases are associated with the generation of oxidative insult and many xenobiotics associated toxicity are also a result of oxidative damage and generation of reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species. Alzheimer’s Disease is one of the fine example of oxidative damage associated neuronal degeneration.

Oxidative stress can be estimated using following parameters:

1. Lipid peroxidation (Paula et al., 2005)

2. Reduced glutathione (Sedlak and Lindsay, 1968)

3. Superoxide dismutase (Madesh and Balasubramanian, 1998)

4. Catalase (Aebi, 1983)

Sample Digestion

Dry ashing and wet oxidation are two widely adopted methods for releasing mineral elements from plant tissues. Dry ashing, typically conducted at temperatures between 550 and 600 °C, can lead to the loss of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) through volatilization. This method is more time consuming and has several drawbacks, such as the volatilization of sulfur (S) and chlorine (Cl), which can be mitigated by adding sodium carbonate (Na2 CO3 ). Additionally, some phosphorus and micronutrients may become occluded during the process, making dry ashing less commonly used.

In contrast, wet oxidation employs oxidizing acids, such as a mixture of nitric acid and perchloric acid (HNO3-HClO4 ) or a tri-acid mixture of nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and perchloric acid (HNO3-H2 SO4-HClO4 ). The use of perchloric acid (HClO4 ) prevents the volatilization loss of potassium (K) and provides a clear solution, while sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ) aids in completing the oxidation. Upon heating, perchloric acid dissociates into nascent chlorine and oxygen, enhancing the oxidation efficiency at high temperatures. However, direct contact between perchloric acid and plant samples can lead to explosions and f ires; thus, pre-digestion of samples is preferred.

Principle

Phosphorus is the chief acid forming mineral constituent of plant and feeds. Phosphorus present in the ash solution (Mineral extract) is precipitated as ammonium phosphomolybedate. The precipitate is washed with dilute potassium nitrate till free from acid and dissolved in a known excess of standard sodium hydroxide solution. The excess alkali is back titrated against standard acid to arrive at the exact quantity of standard solution required.

Objective: Estimation of photosynthetic pigment from plant leaves.

Material required: Plant leaves, test tube, test tube stand, spectrophotometer, balance, centrifuge machine, mortar and pestle, acetone and distilled water.

Theory: Photosynthetic pigments, namely, the chlorophylls are present in green leaves and shoots of plants. There are at least five types of chlorophylls in plants. Chl’a’ and ‘b’ occur in higher plants, ferns and mosses. Chl ‘c’,‘d’ and ‘e’ are found only in algae and in certain bacteria. Chlorophylls are extracted from plant leaves. The absorption peaks of chl ‘a’ at 663 nm and ‘b’ at 645 nm are characteristic measures from which amount of chlorophylls can be calculated.

The physical properties of seeds are a basic activity for designing processing equipments and precision planters. Since these characters vary with crop or variety, one needs to have the data handy to be used on shop floor. This data also helps to quantify processing efficiency, presence of dormancy and suitability for seed treatments for all existing and new crops or varieties.

INTRODUCTION

In nature water is considered as the most important natural resource which is utilized in large quantity throughout the world for drinking, washing, bathing, recreation, irrigation, aquaculture and many industries. Water also plays a fundamental role in regulation of water cycle in nature. India is a agriculture based country totally based on different water sources. The quality of water plays a important role to mankind because it is directly linked with human health. Lake water’s are mainly used for farming and domestic activities like cloth washing. Increasing human activities continuously in lake basins is posing a great threat to all forms of life in aquatic environment. Most of the people who live in villages use irrigation facilities for farms and use excessive use fertilizers and pesticides for agriculture purposes and subsequently and degrade the aquatic ecosystems of lakes. We need to conserve water for future generations and safeguard our natural resources for sustainable development and biodiversity conservation.

Many researchers investigated the freshwater lakes and ponds in the Indian subcontinent viz. Bagde and Verma (1985), Desai (2014), Patel and Patel (2012), Nirbhavanae and Khobragade (2017), Mehta et al (2016), Gupta (2018), Bastola (2013), Raj and Sevankodiyane (2018), Rana Phul Kunwar Singh (2016), Shyamala and Hemvathy (2018), Meshram et al (2014), Fule and Nimgare (2018), Chaudhary and Sitre (2020), Pimpalshende and Sitre (2021).

There are stages in seed supply chain where seed losses happen at harvesting and post harvest stage. These losses may occur due to higher moisture at harvest, due to harvesting methods, processing methods, at seed storage, during transport etc. Estimation of these losses is an important function of seed inventory management. Estimating seed losses help to improve processing and seed distribution efficiency. These simple statistical tools will help to measure quantitative post harvest seed losses. Seed testing can be used for measuring qualitative post harvest seed losses.

Vegetables form an important component of our daily diet as they provide necessary nutrients to the diet and they add colour, texture and flavour to it. Vegetables contain very high content of water (about 78 to 98%) and are reasonably good source of starch, sugar, cellulose, hemicellulose, pentosans and pectic substances. They also contribute minerals, vitamins and indigestible fibers to our diet. The yellow, orange and dark green leafy vegetables are rich source of carotenes- the precursors of vitamin A. Non-volatile acids, such as citric, malic, oxalic and succinic acids, contribute to their flavour. The very strong flavour characteristics of some vegetables like onion, garlic, cabbage, cauliflower, etc. are due to certain sulfur containing volatile compounds. However, vegetables, in general, are poor source of protein and amino acids.

India has made significant progress in the production of vegetables since independence because its diverse agro-climatic zones ranging from tropical to temperate allow the production of a wide spectrum of vegetables.At present, the country is producing about 108 million tonnes of vegetables and considered the second largest producer in the world (Venkatesan et al., 2006). Currently, the plant breeders are focusing their efforts to produce high yielding varieties having resistance against diseases and herbicides and tolerance against drought and salinity. Therefore, the physical aspects of quality, i.e., shape, size, texture, colour, tenderness, etc. are given due priority in the breeding programme with no emphasis to the biochemical and nutritional quality parameters, which include dry matter, proteins, vitamins, sugars, flavouring compounds, alkaloids, flavonoids, etc. However, under present set up of World Trade Organization (WTO), the country will have to compete with quality conscious European and developed countries, and with inferior quality product, it would not be possible to penetrate the foreign market. Therefore, breeding programme in a country like India with future-plans of globalization of agriculture produce must be aimed at achieving good nutritional quality. In different types of vegetable, a varied set of biochemical parameters determines the quality. In this chapter, the methods for qualitative and quantitative determination of these parameters in vegetables have been described.

Principle

    Inorganic salts are relativity insoluble in aromatic solvents which has been detrimental to the estimation of 45Calcium by scintillation counting. This technique inolves the counting of 45Calcium as calcium 2-ethyl hexanoate in a solution of toluene phosphor; and the counting as calcium chloride in a tertiary mixture of absolute ethyl alcohol-hydrochloric acid-toluene-phosphor.

Reagents
    1.    ⁴⁵Calcium. A ⁴⁵Calcium solution supplied as calcium chloride in hydrochloric acid solution, is suitably diluted.
    2.    Calcium chloride, 0.045 N, is prepared by dissolving ACS grade calcium carbonate, dried to constant weight at 110ºC, in 5 N hydrochloric acid.
    3.    Calcium acetate, citrate, lactate, acid phosphate, chloride and hydroxide.
    4.    Ammonium oxalate solution, 4 percent
    5.    2-Ethyl-hexanoic acid.
    6.    Toluene-diphenyloxazole solution, 2g of diphenyloxazole are dissolved in 500 ml of toluene.

When there is indication of linkage from F or testcross data through significant deviation from 9: 3: 3: 1 and 1: 1: 1: 1 ratio, it is implied that independent assortment is not taking place and this is taken as an indication of linkage. The inverse of linkage strength is the recombination value and is often symbolized by ‘p’ whose maximum value is 50% because out of four strands of a tetrad, two are always parental types and two are recombinant types when all the cells show crossing over.

In spite of its high protein (CP, 34-36%) content, castor bean meal as such is not used as livestock feed due to the presence of toxic factors viz., ricin, ricinine and allergen. Of the three, ricin is the most detrimental to animals. In order to detoxify the castor cake, a number of physical and chemical methods are employed. The efficacy of the treatments is assessed, based on the qualitative and quantitative changes in ricin content. Of all the detoxification methods, autoclaving (15 p.s.i., 60 min) and lime (4% w/w) treatments completely destroy the toxin. (Anandan et. al., 2005).

Estimation of Ricin

The raw and detoxified samples can be analysed for the toxin, ricin as per the method of Kabat et al. (1947) with modifications as suggested by Waller and Negi (1958).

Extraction of Ricin

The solvent extracted castor cake sample of 500 g is extracted with 2.5 l of water acidified with HCl to a pH of 3.8 by shaking the contents in a conical flask for 6 h. The contents are allowed to settle and are then filtered trough Whatman filter paper No.1 . The residue is treated with 1.5 l of distilled water, shaken for 3 h and filtered through the same paper. A second treatment with water is given to the residue and filtered again through the same filterpaper.

This filtrate contains all the ricin and portions of ricinine that are soluble in cold, dilute HCI. It is evaporated to a small volume by vacuum distillation below 40 °C. The filtrate is saturated with sodium chloride and centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 20 min. to separate the precipitate containing only ricin.

Principle

In this method the estimation of pentose sugar is carried out. Acid hydrolysis of RNA releases ribose (a pentose sugar) which in the presence of strong acid undergoes dehydration to yield furfural. Orcinol, in the presence of ferric chloride as a catalyst, reacts with furfural producing a green colored compound which can be quantitatively estimated at A_{665 nm}. DNA gives a limited positive reaction with Orcinol test.

Materials and Reagents

1. Spectrophotometer
2. Boiling water bath
3. 5% chloroform (HClO₄)
4. Standard RNA solution : Dissolve yeast RNA (500ìg/ml) in 5% HClO₄ . make different dilutions to obtain solutions containing 100 – 500ìg RNA/ml with 5% HClO₄ .
5. Orcinol reagent : Dissolve 100mg of ferric chloride (FeCl₃.6H₂O) in 100 ml of concentration HCl and then add 3.5 ml of 6% solution of Orcinol prepared in alcohol.

Introduction

In India, the ground water recharge in arid and semi-arid regions is very important particularly as most of the population residing in these regions depend on groundwater for drinking and irrigation purposes. In such scenarios, to alleviate the problems of drinking water, the collection and storage of rainwater to supplement existing water supply sources should be implemented. The utilization of rainwater is one of the best methods that can aid in sustainable urban development (Kim et al., 2005). Every drop of rainfall should be utilized to cater the demand of an ever increasing population as the present system of water supply may not be sufficient in future. The rain water collection & its utilization, seems to be the only option to satisfy the demand of arid and semi arid regions. In most cases, the rain water is the purest water source & contains very low impurities. It is necessary to adopt rainwater harvesting methods in places where the conventional water supply has failed to meet the peak period demand of the people for drinking water. Rain water harvesting is one of the most economical and practical methods to provide supplementary water supplies for drinking purpose.

Principle

Nucleic acids leaving the rumen are mainly of microbial origin which are extensively digested in the small intestine and the purines liberated are absorbed. Only a small amount of absorbed purines are utilized by the host animal, the rest are metabolised forming hypoxanthine, xanthine, uric acid and allantoin. These metabolites are excreted mainly through urine. Therefore, with the understanding of how urinary excretion of purine derivatives (PD) respond to purine absorption i.e. the response curve of PD excretion to purine input into intestines, the microbial purine outflow from the rumen and the microbial N supply to the ruminant animal can be estimated by measuring the purine derivatives excretion through urine.

(Method of Hyden 1955a,b)
I. Use of Polyethylene Glycol (PEG)

These compounds are manufactured through the reaction of ethylene oxide with water, ethylene glycol or diethylene glycol to furnish functional  groups (in this case hydroxyl) for the propagation of the reaction. The process results in a mixture of diols of different chain lengths, in which the numbers of molecules of various sizes are presumed to be represented by Poisson’s distribution (Shaffer, Critchfield and Nair, 1950b). Polyethylene glycols 200, 300, 400 and 600 are fluids: compounds 1,000, 1,500, 4000, 6000 and 1,0000 are solids of increasing firmness. PEG compounds of molecular weight above 1000 are not absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract of the rat and man.

Polyethylene glycol has been used frequently as a water soluble marker in studies of absorption in man and animals (Sperber et al., 1953; Hyden, 1955a,b; Corbett et al., 1956; Gray et al., 1960; Weller et al., 1962; Ulyatt, 1964a,b; Walker and Hawley, 1965; Tulloh et al., 1965; Sinha et al., 1970; Nagel and Piatkowshi, 1972).

30.1. Aim

To estimate the salt contents in given samples by using Mohr method.

30.2. Theory and principle

Common salt is used during preparation of pickles, sauces, ketchup, fruit chutney and appetizers. Besides, imparting taste, the salt in appropriate concentration also acts as a preservative. In different products, it is estimated by using Mohr method. The sample is titrated with standard solution of silver nitrate for estimation of salt by using potassium chromate as an indicator. From the titre the concentration of salt is estimated by using a standard expression.

Sample Digestion

Dry ashing and wet oxidation are the two widely adopted methods for the release of mineral elements from plant tissues. Dry ashing is carried out usually at an ignition of 550 to 600 °C leads to loss of P and K by volatilization. Dry ashing being comparatively more time taking and also has a few drawbacks (such as S and Cl is lost by volatilization during ignition which can be prevented by adding Na2 CO3 ; a part of P and micronutrients also get occluded) is hence occasionally adopted. On the other hand, wet oxidation employs oxidizing acids like HNO3-HClO4 di-acid or HNO3-H2 SO4-HClO4 tri-acid mixture. The volatilization loss of K is prevented by the use of HClO4 and provides a clear solution while H2 SO4 helps completing oxidation. On heating HClO4 dissociates into nascent chlorine and oxygen, increasing the oxidation efficiency at high temperature. Explosion and fire may occur if there is direct contact of HClO4 with plant sample; hence the pre-digestion of samples is preferred. Digestion with HNO3-HClO4 instead of tri-acid mixture is also adopted specially when S is also to be determined in the same digest. The wet oxidation method being less time-consuming, easier and convenient is given below:

The levels of calcium (Ca), inorganic phosphorus (P) and magnesium (Mg) may help in early diagnosis of metabolic and deficiency disorders and for monitoring the herd health status of dairy cattle to maintain production and reproduction.

Estimation of Serum calcium

Calcium is present in 2 forms – inorganic and organic forms. Most of the functions of the calcium depend upon the ionized form. For estimation of serum calcium the most commonly used method is Clark and Collip method.

Sodium and potassium are the most important electrolytes of the body fluid. The sodium as sodium chloride is contained in body fluids. The potassium is also essential in body fluids and its concentration is controlled by the kidneys. The estimation of sodium-potassium balance makes an important contribution as component of metabolic profile test. Low level of Na occurs in early lactation of low grazing on summer pasture and also increasing age, depraved appetite, polydipsia and polyurea.

Total protein: (Biuret method)

There are several methods of estimating protein, in food, agricultural and clinical samples, each of them varying in sensitivity and applicability.

Principle
Biuret method is highly specific for protein and is based on the formation of the blue peptide-copper complex in alkaline solution. It is a method of choice in the clinical laboratory because of the simplicity accuracy and precision. The major limitation of the method is its poor sensitivity for many dilute solutions. The principle of this method is that the peptide bonds in protein react with biuret reagent to give a violet colored complex known as cupric potassium biuret. The colour intensity of which is proportional to protein concentration.

Abstract

The study of size, shape and pattern of various bones in the skull of vertebrate fossils constitutes the foundation of their taxonomy and plays a role in understanding their evolution as well. Size and shape change during lifetime, and the growth of an individual bone involves both isotropic enlargement of its boundary due to uniform growth and differential enlargement that changes its shape. This paper attempts to develop a methodology for quantitative assessment of the pattern of ontogenic shape changes for all the individual skull roof bones of a taxon (Benthosuchus) of an extinct amphibian (temnospondyl) from the Lower Triassic of Russia. Published diagrams depicting skulls of different ontogenic stages have been used. A measure for the degree of shape changes is also proposed. In this study, the skull roof bones in dorsal view were represented as polygons. The boundary of each polygon of a juvenile skull was compared with that of an adult. For comparative purpose, the polygons of the younger skull were placed optimally inside that of the older skull, under the assumption of maximised uniform (isotropic) growth. The variance of the distances between the two boundaries measured at a number of points along the boundaries was considered as a measure for the degree of shape change. The results obtained are in partial concurrence with the published observations traditionally obtained from anatomical studies for the above mentioned growth series.

31.1. Aim

To estimate the sodium benzoate contents in fruit and vegetable products.

31.2. Theory and Principle

Sodium benzoate is used as a class II preservative in preservation of pickles, sauces, squashes etc. Its estimation is important as the quantity of class II preservative shall not exceed maximum limit prescribed under FSSAI. In a sample containing NaCl, the benzoic acid is converted into water soluble sodium benzoate by addition of NaOH. When the Sodium benzoate solution is acidified with excess of HCl, water insoluble benzoic acid is formed which is extracted with chloroform. The chloroform is removed by evaporation and the residue containing benzoic acid is dissolved in alcohol and then titrated with standard sodium hydroxide.

Aim

To estimate the soil loss using universal soil loss equation

Universal soil loss equation

Wischmeir and Smith (1962) has been developed a predictive equation for estimating the soil loss taking into account following factors: Climatic characteristics, soil characteristics, crop management and conservation practices. It is called Universal soil-loss equation (USLE).

The Walkley-Black method is a widely used chemical procedure to estimate soil organic carbon (SOC). It involves the oxidation of organic carbon by potassium dichromate in the presence of sulfuric acid, followed by titration to determine the amount of unreacted dichromate. Here is a detailed step-by-step guide:

Materials Required

• Soil sample (air-dried and sieved through a 2 mm sieve)

• Potassium dichromate solution (1 N)

• Concentrated sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 )

• Ferrous ammonium sulfate solution (0.5 N)

• Orthophosphoric acid (H3 PO4 ) (optional)

• Diphenylamine indicator or N-phenylanthranilic acid (indicator)

• Distilled water

• Burette, pipette, and conical flasks

• Heating mantle or hot plate

The pH is defined as negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration or the log of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration (Sorenson, 1906).

Principle

A glass electrode in contact with hydrogen ions of the solution acquires an electric potential which depends on the concentration of hydrogen ions. This is measured potentiometrically against some reference electrode which is usually a calomel electrode. The potential difference between glass electrode and calomel electrode is expressed in pH units.

Two electrodes are used in the determination of pH. One is reference electrode which provides a standard voltage and is usually a saturated calomel electrode which has two layers of saturated solution of KCl and mixture of solid HgCl₂ and Hg. The outer tube is usually 5-15 cm long, 0.5-1 cm in diameter. The mixture of solid HgCl₂ + Hg paste is contained in an inner tube that is connected to the saturated KCl solution in the outer tube by means of small opening. The resistance developed by this type of electrode is 2000-3000 Ohms.

The outer electrode is glass electrode that consists of a tube enclosing a lead wire made up of Ag coated with AgCl. This wire is again enclosed in a wax insulation. To the tube at the bottom is attached a glass bulb made up of a special kind of glass which is sensitive to hydrogen ions. The thickness of the glass membrane varies from 0.03 to 0.1 mm and has a resistance of 50 to 500 mega Ohms.

When these electrodes are dipped in solution, the saturated solution of KCl comes out of reference through small holes and forms an invisible ionic bridge between electrodes through which current passes. The hydrogen ions are absorbed by glass electrode and depending upon the amount of hydrogen ions present in the solution, an electric potential develops between electrodes. This potential difference is measured in terms of pH units by suitable Galvanometer.

Object: Estimation of stomatal index and stomatal frequency with replica method.

Material required: Leaf sample, blue/red correction fluid, transparent finger nail polish, brush glass slide and microscope.

Principle: The number of stomata per unit area of the leaf is called as Stomatal Frequency. The stomatal index is defined as the percentage number of Stomata as compared to all the epidermal cells in a unit area of leaf i.e.

28.1. Aim

Estimation of reducing sugars in fresh fruits and processed products using Lane and Eynon method.

28.2. Theory

Sugars are inherently present in different fruits and vegetables or added during preparation of different products. They are added to the fruit products to improve the taste and also to act as a preservative. Glucose and fructose in the fruits represent reducing sugars while sucrose or cane sugar added represents the non-reducing sugar. They are estimated by using Lane and Eynon method which measures sugar as reducing sugar and total sugar as invert sugar.

32.1. Aim

To estimate the level of sulphur dioxide contents in fruit and vegetable products

32.2. Theory and principle

Sulphur dioxide in food product is added as class II preservative and may exists as undissociated sulphurous acid, as free bisulphate or sulphite ions or as combined SO2 in the form of hydroxy sulphonates. Sulphur dioxide is measured as free or total SO2. Estimation of SO2 in squashes, jam, RTS drinks is important as its presence beyond the prescribed FSSAI limits make the product not confirming to Indian Food Laws. Generally 2 parts of KMS (Potassium metabisulphite) releases one part of SO2 explained as under:

27.1. Aim

To estimate the titratable acidity of fresh and processed fruit and vegetable products.

27.2. Theory

Most of the fruit, vegetables and their products contain acid or mixture of acids. The acids may occur naturally in the fruit and vegetables or may be added during manufacture of different products or by lactic acid or acetic acid fermentation. Generally citric acid is added in most fruit products while in pickles, sauces and ketchup acetic acid is used. The acids are mainly responsible for the tartness or sour taste, thus estimation of acidity is used as the measure of tartness. They also help in preservation by lowering the pH of the finished products.

Principle
Total ash is the inorganic residue which remains after a feed stuff is ignited to carbon free at 550-600oC in a muffle furnace. In other words, ash is that part of the material which does not disappear at 550-600ºC, while all the organic matter (OM) gets burnet.

Requirement
    1.    Analytical balance
    2.     Asbestos sheet
    3.     Dessicator
    4.     Heater /gas flame burner
    5.     Metal tongs
    6.     Muffle furnace
    7.     Silica basin/crucibles

(Method of Saryre, 1963 and IAEA, 1969)
Introduction

This technique helps in detection of very small amount of stable elements in fairly large quantitites of extraneous matter. Trace elements like zinc, copper, molybdenum and arsenic which exist in minute amounts in certain organs or tissues. For example, to detect the amount of copper present in one gram of tissue. using 1 mg of thin copper foil as control. Normal copper contains 69 percent ⁶³Cu and 31 percent ⁶⁵Cu. The (n,r) reactions on these two stable isotope produce ⁶⁴Cu and ⁶⁶Cu respectively. The half life of ⁶⁴Cu is 12.8 h and that of ⁶⁶Cu is five minutes. Therefore the latter can be ignored, if more than that an hour elapses between the end of the irradiation and the measurement. The specific activity of the unknown separate is compared with that of the known standard separate, and the content of Cu in the original tissue sample is thereby calculated.

Object: Estimation of water potential of plant tissue by Chardakov’s method.

Material required: Test tubes, sucrose or polyethylene glycol (PEG) 6000, methylene blue and dropper.

Principle: Concentration of the solution in which a plant tissue is immersed changes. If the solution is hypertonic (with lesser yw) the tissue loses water and the solution becomes dilute. If the solution is hypotonic (with higher yW) the tissue absorbs water and the Solution becomes concentrated. If the solution is isotonic (with yw equal to the tissue sap) the tissue neither loses nor absorbs water and the solution concentration does not change. Thus the yw of this solution gives the yw of the tissue.

Introduction

Water is the chief factor in fish farming. Water carries oxygen, eliminate metabolic waste products, through its physical and chemical composition, determine the success of production. The major constraint is that the waste organic matter released into water.

Measurement of pH, temperature, conductivity, salinity, transparency, turbidity and solids are important parameters to play role in water quality. pH in water changes during the day and night in response to photo-synthesis which is supported by the sun light intensity. Temperature is a physical parameter which effected on fish growth as resulting of many bio-chemical processes. It changes with the time depending on air temperature surrounding site.

18.1 Estrus Detection
18.1.1 Estrus Detection on the Basis of External Signs

The following signs are suggestive estrous period in cattle and buffaloes

1.    Partial inappetance due to excitement

2.    Drop in milk yield

3.    Restless ness of varying degree

4.    Frequent micturition with raised tail and crouching the back and lumbar region

5.    Marked bellowing

6.    Swollen vulvar lips- Due to swelling the wrinkles on vulvar lips disappear. The vulvar lips appear turgid and stand prominently.

7.    Congestion of vulvar lips 

8.    A clear, shiny mucus discharge seen at the vulvar lips extending down to perineal region and smearing the hind quarters. The discharge is stingy, having good consistency and no odour.

Estrus is referred to as the period of estrous cycle during which the female animal allows the male for mating. It is the period of estrous cycle during which insemination is done to female animal so that the animal will become pregnant. During estrus, cow usually seeks out the male and ’stands’ for him to mate her. In all domestic species, Ovulation occurs during this phase of the cycle but in case of cow, ovulation occurs about 12 hours after the end of estrus period.

The word estuary is derived from the latin word ‘aestus’ meaning tide and the adjective ‘aestuarium’ means tidal. This means low ground covered by the sea at high water.

Objective
To produce ethanol from lignocellulosic biomass (e.g., paddy straw)
through a series of biochemical processes pretreatment, enzymatic saccharification, and microbial fermentation and to evaluate sugar yield, ethanol concentration, and fermentation efficiency.
Introduction and Theoretical Background
Ethanol (C2H5OH), commonly known as ethyl alcohol, is one of the most important biofuels and renewable energy sources in the modern era. It is a clear, volatile, and flammable liquid that can be used both as a fuel additive (blended with gasoline to form gasohol) and as an independent energy source in modified internal combustion engines. In addition, ethanol is extensively used in the pharmaceutical, beverage, and chemical industries. Globally, more than 30 billion litres of ethanol are produced annually, primarily via fermentation of sugar-rich feedstocks such as sugarcane juice, molasses, and starch-based crops like maize and wheat. However, reliance on these food-based resources has raised sustainability and food security concerns. Therefore, attention has increasingly shifted toward lignocellulosic biomass, such as agricultural residues (paddy straw, corn stover, bagasse, etc.), which are abundant, renewable, and inexpensive.
Paddy straw, a by-product of rice cultivation, is a promising raw material for bioethanol production due to its high cellulose (30–40%) and hemicellulose (20–30%) content. However, the complex structure of lignocellulosic biomass, reinforced by lignin and silica, restricts enzyme accessibility to polysaccharides. Hence, pretreatment is essential to break down lignin and enhance enzyme digestibility before fermentation.

Apparatus and Reagents

    1.    Soxhlet extraction asembly. This consists of 3 parts (a) condenser at the top, (b) the soxhlet or extractor in the middle, and (c) the receiver flask at the bottom. The 3 parts are assembled by means of their grounds glass interchangeable joints (Fig. 1).

    2.    Extraction thimble.

    3.    Petroleum ether (B.P. 40ºC to 60ºC)

    4.    Constant temperatue bath or six heater hot plate with temperature controlling device.

Introduction
As information technology (IT) continues to evolve and integrate into every aspect of human life, the intersection of IT and sustainability presents immense opportunities and significant ethical challenges. These challenges arise from the complex relationship between technological advancement, environmental responsibility, social equity, and economic growth. While IT has the potential to drive progress toward sustainability, it also introduces new risks and dilemmas that need to be carefully navigated. The ethical concerns surrounding IT and sustainability can be broadly categorized into data privacy, digital divide, environmental impact, accountability, and the potential unintended consequences of technological innovations.

All scientists working with laboratory animals must have a deep ethical consideration for the animals they are dealing with. From the ethical point of view it is important that such considerations are taken care at the individual level, at Institutional level and finally at the national level.

Individually each investigator has an obligation to abide by all the ethical guidelines laid down in this regard at institutional level. The Head of the institution, maintaining animals for scientific experiments , should constitute an animal ethics committee on animal experimentation to ensure that all experiments conducted on animals are rational , do not cause undue pain or suffering to the animals and only minimum number of animals are used. The constitution and term of reference of the animal ethic committee should be well defined.

An animal ethic committee should include: a senior biological scientist of the institute, two scientists from different biological disciplines, a veterinarian involved in care of animals, the scientist in charge of animal facility, a scientist from outside the institute & a nonscientific socially aware member. A specialist may be co-opted while reviewing special projects using hazardous agents such as radioactive substance and deadly micro-organisms etc. The investigator may be called in for any clarification if required.

The ethics committee has to examine all projects involving use of animals before implementation, to ensure that minimum number of animals is used in the project and the ethical guidelines are strictly adhered to. It will also examine that the scientists and technicians handling animals possess adequate skill to perform the experiment. All animals should be maintained under standard living conditions and experiments will be conducted under proper anesthesia and termination of an experiment, the animal will be humanely sacrificed under anesthesia. Before disposal it must be ensured that the animal is clinically dead.

AI-enabled livestock technologies can improve productivity, health monitoring, animal welfare and environmental performance, but they also raise significant ethical and governance concerns. This chapter examines data ownership, privacy, algorithmic bias, transparency, accountability, cybersecurity, socioeconomic inequality and animal well-being. Precision livestock systems continuously monitor animals through sensors, computer vision, machine learning and IoT networks, enabling preventive decisions and automated interventions. However, excessive dependence on algorithms may reduce human oversight and treat animals merely as data-producing units. The chapter advocates an interdisciplinary framework for responsible AI that aligns innovation with animal-welfare standards, farmer interests, social values, equitable access, regulatory requirements and long-term environmental sustainability.

Introduction
The use of animals in scientific research has been a cornerstone of medical advancements for decades. However, this practice has also been the subject of intense ethical debate. This lecture explores the necessity of animal experimentation, the ethical considerations involved, and the regulatory frameworks in place to ensure the humane treatment of laboratory animals.
The Need for Laboratory Animals
Animal experimentation has played a crucial role in numerous medical breakthroughs. The importance of laboratory animals in research cannot be overemphasized. Among the various purposes for which humans use animals, experimentation involves relatively few animals and serves a noble purpose in advancing scientific knowledge and human health.
Laboratory animals are invaluable in the drug development process for several reasons:
• Similarity to human organ systems, metabolism, and enzyme functions.
• Suitability as alternatives to human subjects.
• Small size and ability to be reared in controlled environments.
• High reproductive rates.
• Potential for genetic purity, leading to reproducible and reliable results.
The Importance of Animal Welfare
While the benefits of animal experimentation are clear, it’s equally important to consider the ethical implications of using animals for research. The concept of animal welfare is embedded in the Indian Constitution, which states that it is the duty of every citizen “to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, rivers, lakes and wildlife, and to have right compassion for the living creatures” (Article 51 A (g)). This ethical consideration for animals has been emphasized by philosophers, spiritual leaders, and scientists throughout history:

An ancient Chinese proverb says

If you are thinking one year ahead, plant rice
If you are thinking ten years ahead, plant trees
If you are thinking hundred years ahead, educate the people

Subramanya Bharati, a great Tamil poet, wrote decades ago that nutrition and education were the two legs of a human being — nutrition for the body and education for the mind. We must, therefore, foster a movement for integrating academic excellence and social relevance in the curricula of our educational institutions. Our universities should promote the growth of the science of ecotechnology, which is the product of the integration of traditional knowledge with frontier science. This will need a mind-set change in relation to the knowledge and wisdom of our tribal and rural families.

In the 1990s, I developed the Iwokrama Rain Forest Programme, which represents the world’s largest adventure in the sustainable management of rainforests. The local Amerindian population welcomed me to Iwokrama with a song, which translates thus:

The credibility of academic publishing hinges significantly on the integrity of journal rating systems. These systems, designed to evaluate and rank academic journals based on various metrics, play a pivotal role in shaping research priorities, funding allocations, and academic career trajectories. However, despite their importance, many journal rating systems are criticized for lacking transparency and ethical rigor (Fig. 10.1).
This chapter explores these shortcomings, focusing on potential biases embedded in current systems and proposing solutions to enhance their transparency and fairness.
10.1. Role of Journal Rating Systems in Academic Publishing
Journal rating systems serve as gatekeepers in the academic publishing ecosystem. They influence where researchers choose to publish their work, how institutions evaluate scholarly output, and how funding agencies allocate resources. Metrics such as impact factor, h-index, and SCImago Journal Rank (SJR) are commonly used to rank journals. These metrics, while useful, often reduce the multifaceted nature of scholarly impact into single numerical values, potentially oversimplifying and distorting the evaluation process. The reliance on these metrics creates a feedback loop wherein highly ranked journals attract more submissions, increasing their citation counts and reinforcing their dominance. This system can marginalize smaller or niche journals that publish

Introduction

The term 'research ethics' in social science research refers to human values, norms, and society approved arrangements that regulate scientific understanding go for society. It consists of the set of values, standards, and principles that serve as benchmark to determine appropriate and acceptable conduct tall stage soft he research process. It is the implementation of ethical practices that specifies norms and values as well as responsibility towards the academic community and society as a whole. 

Code of Ethics was observed by International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature for renaming of homonyms. The commission had issues declarations or opinions from time to time, which together constitute the start of a code of ethics in the field of nomenclature. The first Declaration of the international Commission was as follows:

• When it is noticed by any zoologist that the generic name or specific name published by any living author as new is in reality a homonym, and therefore unavailable under articles 34 and 36 of the Rules of Nomenclature, the action is for said person to notify the said author of the facts, and give said author an opportunity to propose a substitute name.

• When the author of a newly discovered generic or specific homonym is dead, the discoverer is free to rename the genus or species as he likes. It is common practice to rename the category after the author of the homonym. However, this practice was never universal and it is not a matter of ethics.

Indigenous culture

Indigenous means originating where it is found. If knowledge originates from, and is bound to local experiences, taking its local world not perhaps as the only one, but as the most relevant of all they know may be called indigenous. Indigenous knowledge is human lifeexperience in a distinct natural and cultural amalgamation within a unique local and timely setting. It is an authentic appropriation of being, meaning that this very process happens exclusively in a given locality at a given time. In the field of medicine, Chinese culture (indigenous) developed Acupuncture technique. An acupunturist places needles into the skin to balance out the flow of chi which is believed to be the energy that flows through the human body. In theory, Chi runs along 14 pathways called meridains and when a patient is injured, stressed, or ill, their chi is supposedly being blocked. By placing needles in the Meridians the patients chi is thought to be put back into balance. Like Chinese culture, indigenous culture of different places/countries occurs and have their own belief and methods.

Indigenous cultures speak in various ways, for example we could speak from the perspective of our so-called ‘civilizations’ but how do we know that this perception is not contrary to the truth. We could speak on the basis of our traditional religious concepts but again these concepts may in reality be the opposite of what we believe. If we speak about the indigenous from the point of view of an anthropologist we arrive at a cold and empty language, a study that only pays attention to external and superficial matters, in the same way an anatomist analyses our inner organs or our bones but they are still a long way from knowing the reality. We believe that it is better to speak about indigenous cultures on the basis of their own reality, in relation to how they were as much as how they are now because in the course of time from yesterday to today many things have happened that are worth examining.

Introduction

In India about 8.6 per cent of population enlisted in the category as ‘Scheduled Tribes’ under Article 342 of the Constitution of India, but they constitute almost 16 per cent of the poor. Lakshadweep is the most populous state with respect to proportion of tribal to total population (94.8 per cent) whereas, in Uttar Pradesh tribal population is lowest with only 0.6 per cent of the total. In Odisha tribal constitutes 22.8 per cent of total population. In India literacy rate of tribal is 59 per cent as against that of general category is 69 per cent. Tribal people are observed to be strongly associated with the forests, hills and remote areas, practising a unique life style, having a unique set of cultural and religious beliefs. Over the generations these communities have evolved time tested farming systems, which are purely subsistence in approach and are keeping pace in perfect harmony with nature. Over the recent few decades, however, population growth and lack of harmony between different agriculture and developmental policies have threatened these traditional agricultural systems for extinction. The encroachment of local Governments and private interests on forest and mineral resources has pushed the tribal groups on to increasingly degraded land, thus their survival became a constant struggle.

The primitive societies have passed through several stages of economic development everywhere in the world. Thus one can find the stages of food gathering, hunting and fishing, farming, etc. among the Indian tribes. The tribes living in the forests and hills usually earn their livelihood by means of food gathering, hunting and fishing. Such is the life of Kadar of Kerala, Birhor and Kharia of Bihar and other tribes. The tribes living in dense forests, full of wild beasts, live on hunting, such as the tribes of Naga, Kuki, Bhil, Santhal and Gond. The hunters leave the females to carry out household activities in the morning and return in the evening after hunting. In some tribes there is a usual custom of hunting collectively. The Nagas use spears, arrows and bows. The Bhils are very much specialized in shooting by arrow. The tribes living near rivers and seas usually earn their livelihood by catching fish. The hilly tribes rear the cattle, an example of which are Goojars and the tribes of Chamba. The Todas of Nilgiri rear buffaloes. Some tribes also carry out cultivation, but they are generally shifting from one place to another. So shifting cultivation is an intrinsic part of tribal system and tradition. Among the cultivating tribes are the Santhals and Gonds. Tribal groups mostly do not have land ownership and have a limited option to adopt agricultural operations in forest areas. Considering their sustenance Government of Odisha has passed an Act “Schedule Tribes and other forest dwellers Forest Right Act” in 2006. It permits ownership of tribals on forest land up to 4 ha. for forest use and subsistence agricultural activity without any penalty. Cottage industries, such as weaving cloths, preparing ropes and skins and utensils of different metals are prevalent in many tribes. The Kharia people are very much specialized to cottage industries. Their living standard is very poor in spite of their hard work.

Abstract

Lichenized fungi or lichens represent the most successful symbiotic organisms on earth. They are the inconspicuous group of lower plants having numerous properties. Their different growth forms namely crustose, foliose and fruticose have been put to use in one way or the other. Since ancient times, they were used as food, fodder, dye and in perfumery. Lichens are a rich source of several important secondary metabolites because of which they are widely used as a source of medicine against several diseases and to improve the health of humans as well as animals. Most of the information related to the usage of lichens is gathered from the traditional knowledge holders. Therefore, there is a need to explore and document this traditional knowledge associated with lichens. The present paper thus makes an attempt to present and document the valued information on the ethnobiological uses of lichens from the Northwestern parts of the Himalayas, if not, the undocumented information will be lost for all the future generations. Ethnobiology of 39 species of lichens belonging to 08 families is being presented in this communication.

Abstract

Crocus sativus L. commonly called as saffron is a Persian plant belonging to the Iridaceae family and is cultivated for more than 4000 years. It grows exclusively in India, the Balkans and the eastern Mediterranean region. Saffron is traditionally used for, as a food supplement and its pharmacological properties such as antihypertensive, anticonvulsant, anxiolytic aphrodisiac, antioxidant, antidepressant etc. It comprises of the dried stigma which comprises of 150 different types of metabolites, of which some are responsible for the color, flavor and aroma of the Saffron. Saffron is a plant with great significance as an adaptogen and seems to be promising as a nutraceutical in barring several diseases. The current chapter explores the Ethnobiology, historical background, chemical constituents, ethnopharmacological properties, uses and toxicity of Saffron.