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With some important exceptions, applied plant pathology was for many years rather single minded. It aimed at eradication or total exclusion of a plant disease , and it relied largely on a single control method, application of chemical poisons.

Disease in plants defined as the series of invisible and visible responses of plant cells and tissues to a pathogenic organism or environmental factor that result in adverse changes in the form, function, or integrity of the plant and may lead to partial impairment or death of plant parts or of the entire plant.

The term “plant health” has two overlapping meanings. In the more specific meaning, plant health refers to plant quarantine, while in the less specific use, it covers all areas of plant protection, such as plant pest management, plant quarantine, and pesticide regulation and application.

Milk, commonly referred to as the “ideal food,” is an essential source of nutrition for human consumption. Because of the growing human population and the rising demand for milk and milk products, there is more interest in and concern about the quality and safety of dairy products. Milk comprises chemical substances with various functions in the human body, such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and trace elements (vitamins, minerals, etc.) (Guetouache et al., 2014).

The exploration of facts about healthy and nutritious food has increased over the years. The advent of advance scientific tools has elucidated facts regarding the role of diet or nutrients in regulating gene expression (Sales et al., 2014). Various studies based on molecular interactions in food has revealed that many dietary components such as proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, vitamins and phyto-constituents has the tendency to regulate gene expression.

The term nanoscience defines controlling or modifying the shapes and sizes of the materials such that they lie in the range of a nanometre (1 nm = 10^-9 m) scale, typically 1-100 nm (Chavada et al., 2016). The application of these materials and systems by their suitable designing and production is what is known as nanotechnology. Richard Feynman, in 1959, first discussed the possibility of this advanced technology. However, the term was first used by Norio Taniguchi in 1974 (Chavada et al., 2016).

Starch is the most abundant polysaccharide carbohydrate reserve which is available in different parts of plants such as roots, stem, leaves, seeds, flowers, and fruits. It is considered an excellent source of energy and plants utilizes carbon from it for their metabolic activities (Smith, 2001). It is composed of glucose units linked together by glycosidic bonds to form amylose and amylopectin polymeric chains (Abbas et al., 2010).

Enzymes (biological catalyst) can be defined as a substance which initiates or fastens the reaction rate, without being consumed during the reaction. Enzymes function as a catalyst in various biological processes taking place in all life forms. Although enzyme synthesis takes place inside living cells, they can even function as a catalyst in the in vitro processes, which makes it suitable for many industrial applications. For product formation in any chemical reaction, reactants or substrates has to overcome the transition state.

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is one of the most effective methods for determining the functional groups and potential molecular interactions between membrane chemical molecules. Understanding of (infrared) IR absorption band placements in the spectrum as wave numbers can be used to identify the various chemical constituents (such as aromatic amides) that may not be visible by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.

Biosensors are the next generation detection devices, use biological sensing elements like enzymes, nucleic acids, antibody, cells, organelles, tissues, receptors; have got varied applications in the field of drug discovery, diagnosis, biomedicine, food safety and processing, environmental monitoring, defense and security etc. Microbial biosensors are analytical device that uses naturally occurring or engineered microbial cells as the recognition elements to detect physiological changes in cells with the help of suitable physicochemical transducer.

The last two decades have seen rapid growth and development in the industrial sector as well as urbanization has increased. Due to globalization and mass production of commodities, the situation in the modern world nothing like ever before. Food and dairy industries are also not left out from this massive expansion. Due to changing behavior and food consumption habits too, there has been a surge in the risk of foodborne illness. This has created a problem in terms of public health and sustainability

Thermal heating methods are used from long time to decontaminate the food products from microorganism and therefore increase its shelf life and ultimately make the product safe for human consumption. But these methods diminish the sensory, physicochemical and nutritional properties of food (Barba et al., 2012). Also, the cost of generation of heat in manufacture of food product make the product costlier in thermal processing and also create environmental issue.

Electricity is one of the fundamental phenomena of nature. Electricity or electric current is caused due to the movement of charged particles i.e., electrons. Due to the potential difference between two points in a conductor, electron movement takes place. The potential difference between two points is caused due to the difference in charge density. Electron tends to flow from lower potential to higher potential which causes electricity to flow. In general, the electrons flow from cathode (negative) to anode (positive) but in a wire electricity, electrons flow from anode to cathode when connected to a battery or any electricity source.

High-pressure processing (HPP) is a novel method for non-thermal preservation technique of food that inactivates harmful pathogens and vegetative spoilage microorganisms. HPP is an alternate, non-thermal food processing method, wherein the food is subjected to a very high pressure range from 100 -800 MPa (1MPa = 145.03 Psi or 10 Bar). HPP is also referred as High hydrostatic pressure processing, Ultra high-pressure processing, Hyperbaric processing and Pascalization (Rao et al., 2014).

Milk is considered to be a perfect food which contains almost all the macroand micronutrients required for normal body growth. However, it is highly perishable in nature which poses problem during its storage. It gets spoiled within few hours after milking if not processed or cooled immediately. It can also be a source of several disease causing microbes as it is conducive for the growth of microorganisms.

Integrated farming places a strong emphasis on the fundamental functions of agro-ecosystems, balanced nutrient cycles that are adapted to the demands of the crops, the health and wellbeing of the farm’s livestock, and a holistic management strategy that sees the entire farm as one connected system (Kochewad et al. 2017). Family farming, often referred to as integrated farming, provides the opportunity to profitably utilize the farm family’s available labor to the fullest extent throughout the year, leading to an increase in income and family contentment.

The number of people is expected to increase from 7.2 billion to 9.6 billion by 2050. (UN, 2013). This represents a 33% increase in population, but the demand for agricultural products will climb by approximately 70% during the same time period as the global quality of living rises (FAO, 2009). Livestock is essential for ensuring food security.

It is believed that efforts to combat poverty and advance sustainable development must include both the development of livestock and energy-related activities The relationship between energy and livestock in alleviating poverty is less clear and has just recently grown increasingly significant, despite the fact that each of these issues has been identified separately(Steinfeld et al., 2006).

It is the common maintenance of bee colonies by humans in hives made of man-made materials. The majority of these bees are honeybees from the genus Apis, however there are others that make honey, like Melipona. There are also stingless bees kept. A beekeeper raises bees to produce bees for sale to other beekeepers or to collect honey and other goods that hives generate, such as beewax, propolis, flower pollen, and bee pollen, to fertilize crops. An apiary, often known as a bee yard, is a place where bees are kept.

Drivers
• Unique aspects of the local climate and soil.
• Availability of resources and land labor.
• The current level of resource use.
• Economics of the proposed integrated farming.
• Farmer’s management skills

A farming system is composed of several farm activities, such as cropping systems, horticulture, livestock, fisheries, forestry, and poultry, as well as the tools the farmer has at his disposal to raise these things profitably. However, a lot of definitions generally express the same concept, which is that it is a technique to achieve profitable and sustainable agricultural production in order to meet the varied needs of the farming community while sparing the natural resource base and environmental quality.

The large and diverse livestock resources of India benefit millions of people in rural areas, enhancing their standard of living. The key elements of sustainable agriculture are livestock resources. India has a population of 535.78 million livestock. According to 20th livestock census 2019,India ranks first in the world for the number of buffalo (109.85 million), second in number of cattle (192.49 million), third for the number of sheep (74.26 million), fifth for the number of chickens and ducks (851.81 million), and tenth for the number of camels (2.5 lakhs). About 8.8% of India’s population is engaged by the livestock industry, which provides a living for two-thirds of the country’s rural communities.

Market survey and analysis of different types of home appliances available in the market.

Every homemaker spends a chunk of her time in the kitchen. Kitchen is the most functional part of the house. It needs to be carefully designed. Kitchen ergonomics comes into play to make the kitchen a comfortable place to work. Kitchen ergonomics is all about minimizing the movements and stress we have to go through while cooking. While designing your kitchen you need to keep in mind the heights of various surfaces, distances and placement of items to make your space functional, efficient and enable effortless cooking.

To learn the design and arrangement of space in the kitchen which is the key in the pattern of living, the number of people to be served in the area, the size of the house and the equipment and furnishing in the kitchen. To know the most important aspect to consider in planning a kitchen i.e., the nature of the primary and secondary activities to be performed in the kitchen.

A solar cooker or solar oven is a device which uses the energy of sunlight to heat food or to cook it or sterilize it by means of reflective panels that concentrate the light on to a dark coloured pot in an insulated box.

Electric Cooking Range is also known as an electric stove or electric range; is a stove with a built-in cooktop and with an integrated electrical heating device to cook and bake. Electric stoves became popular as replacements for solidfuel (wood or coal) stoves which required more labor to operate and maintain. “Cookstoves” (also called “cooking stoves” or “wood stoves”) are heated by burning wood or charcoal; “gas stoves” are heated by gas; and “electric stoves” by electricity. Unlike gas stoves, electric stove tops don’t produce a flame.

Washing dishes is not the most rewarding task. Cooking can be creative, but cleaning up afterward seems like a waste of time and leaves the person washing complaining about “dishpan hands.” The development of the dishwasher has helped relieve some of the monotony, as well as the grease and grime.

A washing machine laundry machine, clothes washer, or washer) is a device used to wash laundry. The term is mostly applied to machines that use water as opposed to dry cleaning (which uses alternative cleaning fluids, and is performed by specialist businesses) or ultrasonic cleaners. The user adds laundry detergent which is sold in liquid or powder form to the wash water.

The refrigerator (called a ‘fridge’ by most people) is a box like equipment which uses electricity to keep the temperature inside the box lower than the atmosphere outside. Food kept at such a low temperature thus does not spoil for a long time. The refrigerator also serves the purpose of giving us cold water and ice in summer. By preserving food in the refrigerator, one can delay the growth of bacteria, keep food items fresh and thus save time and energy of the homemaker in meal preparation.

The domestic electric food juicer/mixer/grinder has become an integral fixture in the typical modern kitchen. Generally functional as liquidizers, grinders and juicers, this paraphernalia comes in handy for grinding/pulverizing/powdering dry foodstuffs either raw or roasted (cereals, grains, masalas, coffee seeds, etc.), for mixing liquids and for converting food— with or without the presence of water (or vegetable oils)—into forms of slurry or pulps. It is also used for extracting juice from fruits or vegetables.

A microwave oven, commonly referred to as a microwave, is a kitchen appliance that heats and cooks food by exposing it to electromagnetic radiation in the microwave spectrum.

A vacuum cleaner, also known as a sweeper or hoover, is a device that uses an air pump (a centrifugal fan in all but some of the very oldest models), to create a partial vacuum to suck up dust and dirt from fl oors and from other surfaces such as upholstery and draperies.The dirt is collected by either a dustbag or a cyclone for later disposal. Vacuum cleaners, which are used in homes as well as in industry, exist in a variety of sizes and models—small battery-powered hand-held devices, wheeled canister models for home use, domestic central vacuum cleaners, huge stationary industrial appliances that can handle several hundred litres of dust before being emptied, and self-propelled vacuum trucks for recovery of large spills or removal of contaminated soil.

The toaster is a kind of equipment used to toast bread in order to make it crisp. It has two slots which can hold two or four slices of bread. The electrical element produces the heat needed to make the bread hot and crisp. The toaster is a little apparatus intended to toast numerous sorts of bread items. Created in Scotland in 1893 and persistently created from that point forward, the most well-known family unit toasting machines are presently the pop-up toaster and the toaster broiler. Pop-up toasters make toast from bread in 1 to 3 minutes by utilizing warmth components.

Method: To check the performance of these pans, prepare 3 besan chillas on each type of pan by using equal quantity of oil and batter. Then compare and evaluate prepared dishes on 5 parameters i.e. Appearance, Texture, Aroma, Color and Taste by using 9-point hedonic scale.

Cookware is food preparation equipment, such as cooking pots and pans, used in kitchens. There are several different types of pots and pans- nonstick, ceramic, stainless steel, cast-iron and more. If you’re only going to buy one, we suggest a heavy-duty, try-ply or multi-clad stainless steel pan. They’re expensive, but they’ll last a lifetime with proper use.

Pressure cookers are pans made of Aluminum or stainless steel. They are available in different sizes. The pressure cooker was invented in the seventeenth century by the physicist Denis Papin, and works by expelling air from the vessel, and trapping the steam produced from the boiling liquid inside. This raises the internal pressures and permits higher cooking temperatures. This, together with high thermal heat transfer from the steam, cooks food far more quickly, often cooking in between half and a quarter the time for conventional boiling. After cooking, the steam pressure is lowered back to ambient atmospheric pressure, so that the vessel can be opened safely.

Today, we have spoons made of different sizes and materials such as metal, wood, plastic, ceramic or a combination of two or more materials. The most popular material is the stainless steel. Spoons are used primarily for eating liquid or semi-liquid foods, such as soup, stew or ice cream, and very small or powdery solid items which cannot be easily lifted with a fork, such as rice, sugar, cereals and green peas.

Appliances which help or assist in doing household work as cooking, cleaning and food preservation are known as equipments. A equipment also referred to as a domestic appliance or an electric appliance or a household appliance.

Home cooking is all about simple, tasty and healthy food brought from the kitchen to the dining table. But oftentimes, preparing the food can be timeconsuming and tedious. With the right list of basic kitchen tools, utensils and appliances, we can make cooking more enjoyable and a lot easier. These appliances can also motivate us to think of creative new recipes to delight our loved ones.

Work simplification is the conscious seeking of the simplest, easiest, and quickest method of doing work. It describes the making of daily tasks easier in order to reduce strain or to decrease the amount energy required to complete an activity. Work simplification research consists of making motion and time studies of the work as it is being done, analyzing the work methods, developing the easiest and most effective way to do the task and putting the new method into use. Time and energy are closely related and if these are blended properly the work of the housewife will be much simplified.

The level of motivation of an individual has a definite relation to the fatigue experienced while doing any work. When a person dislikes a task, motivation to do is low and fatigue sets in faster. Interest in job produces high motivation and prevents fatigue. Besides the way of carrying a task is of great concern if we want to maintain our right posture, in order that we do not have to face any musculoskeletal disorders.

The rate of consumption of time and energy in task completion is affected by the work area. The work area is composed of the height, available space of the work surface, the location of the equipment, materials, and supplies being used. The work surface should be at the optimum height for the position you assume in task completion. This means if you are standing, the surface height should be slightly below your waistline.

Anthropometry is the study of the measurement of the human body in terms of the dimensions of bone, muscle, and adipose (fat) tissue. It is a branch of anthropology dealing with measurements of human body to determine difference in groups and individuals. The word “anthropometry” is derived from the Greek word “anthropo” meaning “human” and the Greek word “metron” meaning “measure” (Ulajaszek, 1994).

The parent material to which a coating or plating is applied is known as the base material. The phrase base material is used to distinguish the overall part, numerous layers, and the original base material. Coating, electroplating, welding, and soldering all depend heavily on base materials.

There are 8 fundamental Ergonomic Principles for better work performance which help you identify ergonomic risk factors and maintain your stellar safety record.
• Maintain neutral posture
• Work in power zone
• Allow for movement and stretching
• Reduce excessive force
• Reduce excessive motion
• Minimize contact stress
• Reduce excessive vibration
• Provide adequate lighting

Physical ergonomics is concerned with human anatomical, anthropometric, physiological and biomechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity. This is the ergonomics domain we are most concerned with in the workplace, and most of the content on this site is very much focused on workplace ergonomics.Physical ergonomic principles have been widely used in the design of both consumer and industrial products for optimizing performance and to preventing / treating work-related disorders by reducing the mechanisms behind mechanically induced acute and chronic musculoskeletal injuries / disorders.

The International Ergonomics Association (IEA) defines ergonomics or human factors as the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design to optimize human well-being and overall system performance.

The Indian economy, which meets its own dairy demands, has reached a turning point with its bovine breeding initiatives. The viability of this enterprise, however, depends largely on completing as many successful artificial insemination cycles at a cattle farm. Estrus behaviour observation is used to determine when artificial insemination should take place. But since not all cattle exhibit substantial estrus symptoms, insemination results are not always reliable. An estrus detecting instrument known as an Electronic Nose (eNose) is created to address these issues.

The cradle-to-grave dairy supply chain includes a number of operations that result in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions related to milk production. These activities broadly include the use of agricultural inputs like fertilizers, fossil fuel for the production of animal feed and fodder, processing concentrates in cattle feed plants, enteric fermentation, manure management, and post farm gate activities like processing milk at dairy cooperative societies, milk unions, its conversion into different milk products, and their distribution through retail supply chains.