eChapters

Introduction

The actinomycetes are gram positive, non-motile, non-sporulating and nonacid fast bacteria. Sometimes these are called ray fungi and are connecting link between the bacteria and the true fungi. They possess a very fine vegetative mycelium that does not fragment into bacillary or coccoid forms and therefore their colonies on agar are commonly cohesive or tough in consistency. In many soils, the actinomycetes accounts from 10 to 25% of the total count on agar plates. Their number is higher in soils of low moisture content than in wet soils. They are responsible for degrading more resistant carbon material in soil like humus. They are also important flora of manure heaps. Most of these, particularly Streptomyces, produce antibiotics and so are of a great value

Method: To check the performance of these pans, prepare 3 besan chillas on each type of pan by using equal quantity of oil and batter. Then compare and evaluate prepared dishes on 5 parameters i.e. Appearance, Texture, Aroma, Color and Taste by using 9-point hedonic scale.

Orientation and general precautions in laboratory: Laboratory safety glasses or goggles should be worn in any area where chemicals are used or stored. They should also be worn any time there is chance of splashes or particulates to enter the eye. Closed – toe shoes must be worn at all times in the laboratory. Perforated shoes or sandals are not appropriate. Lab coat, gloves, eye protection, and appropriate attire (impermeable gowns, plastic aprons, masks, face shields) should be worn at all times in the lab. Long pants and shoes completely covering the top of the foot should be worn at all times when
working in the lab. Do not eat or drink in the lab at any time. Do not expose electric sparks, open flames and heating elements to organic solvent vapours.
Do not leave your assigned laboratory station without permission of the in charge. Learn the location of the fire extinguisher, eye wash station and first aid kit [A first aid manual, different sized sterile gauge pads, adhesive tape, band aids in several sizes, elastic bandage, antiseptic wipes, antibiotic ointment antiseptic solution like hydrogen peroxide]. Fire blanket, exits from the room, fire escape route. Basic life support (BLS) is important for clinical point of view. Lab safety is important because it can prevent injury, keep us from making mistakes and save lives. Following lab safety rules is part of being a good citizen. We should follow the lab safety protocols to stay safe and healthy. We cannot tell if a chemical is hazardous (radioactive !!) just by looking at it. Friedrich Esmarch, the founder of “Modern first – aid”. Emergency kit includes - * Flashlight with extra batteries, * Whistle, * Dust mask, * Local maps, * Manual can opener, * Battery powered or hand cranked radio, * Books, games, puzzles or other activities for children.

After fertilization and zygote formation, in utero development can be divided into two stages, i.e. embryonic and foetal. Embryo period refers to the time between fertilization and the development of organ primordia. During the embryonic period, fast development occurs, and primordia of most organs are established. During the foetal stage, which lasts from the end of the embryonic period until parturition, the body’s systems begin to develop and function.

Cell culture is the most convenient and widely used system for the isolation and propagation of many viruses. Either primary cell culture or established cell lines can be used to isolate the suspected viruses. One can normally get 10-100 virus particles per cell inoculated. Many details of the infection process are controllable to a high degree (including cell density, age, multiplicity of infection (M.O.I.), medium composition, cell type and length and temperature of incubation). Many cell types from different species can be susceptible to a particular virus and vice versa. For replication to occur, the cell type used must be permissive for a particular virus under study.

Objective: To extract and perform enzyme assay of guaiacol peroxidase from plant.

Background information:

Peroxidases are a large family of enzymes that typically catalyze a reaction of the form:

IDENTIFICATION OF BODY PARTS

Objectives

To become familiar with external parts of the body

Physical examination

Administration of medicine or substances
Oral administration : can be done with the help of syringes or stomach Tube. In large animals, mouth gag is used before passing stomach tube.

Purpose: Layering includes several forms of ground and aerial layering (goottie). When rooting is encouraged on the aerial part of a plant after wounding it is known as air layering or goottie or morcottage. When branches running parallel to ground are utilized, then the method is known as ground layering. Layering is the development of root on a stem while it is still attached to the mother plant. The root formation on the stem is stimulated by removing a ring of bark or by making a notch which cause an interruption in the downward movement of carbohydrates and auxins from the leaves and growing shoot tips. The materials accumulate near the points of treatment and helps in rooting. Root formation depends upon continuous moisture supply, good aeration and moderate temperature around the rooting zone. For the same reason the best result are obtained by these methods during monsoon month (July-Sept.) and spring (Feb. -March) from branches 1 to 2 years of age.

1. Ornamental ferns

Adiantum capillus – Maiden hair fern

Asplenium nidus – Bird’s nest fern

Cheilanthes argentea – Silver fern

Davallia bullata – Squirrels foot fern

Nephrolepsis aureum - Boston fern

Polypodium aureum – Hare’s foot fern

Pteris cretica – Brake/ Ribbon fern

Drynaria quercifolia -Oak-leaf fern / basket fern

Measures of Central Tendency

The term ‘Mean” or ‘average’ is something, we have been familiar with from a very early age when we start analyzing our marks on report card. We add together all of our test results and then divide it by the sum of the total number of marks there are. We often call it the average. However, statistically it’s the Mean!

The Median is the ‘middle value’. When the totals of the list are odd, the me- dian is the middle entry in the list after sorting the list into increasing order. When the totals of the list are even, the median is equal to the sum of the two middle (after sorting the list into increasing order) numbers divided by two. Thus, remember to line up values, the middle number is the median!

The Mode in a list of numbers refers to the list of numbers that occur most frequently. A trick to remember this one is to remember that mode starts with the same first two letters that most does. Most frequently - Mode.

4.1. Information and Communication Technology

Refers to technologies that provide access to information through telecommunications.

Similar to IT, but focuses on communication technologies.

Includes the Internet, wireless network, cell phones, and other communication medium.

Phosphorus irritates, inflames and degenerates mucous membranes, irritates, and inflames serous membranes, inflames spinal cord and nerves, causing paralysis, destroys bone, especially the lower jaw and tibia; disorganizes the blood, causing fatty degeneration of blood vessels and every tissue and organs of the body and thus gives rise to haemorrhages.

Produces a picture of destructive metabolism. Causes yellow atrophy of the liver and sub-acute hepatitis. Tall, slender persons, narrow chested, with thin, transparent skin, weakened by loss of animal fluids, with great nervous debility, emaciation seems to be under the special influence of Phosphorus. Great susceptibility to external impressions, to light, sound, odors, touch, thunderstorms. Polycythaemia, fatty degeneration, cirrhosis, and caries are pathological states calling for this remedy, inflammations of the respiratory tract. Paralytic symptoms. Ill effects of iodine and excessive use of salt, worse lying on left side.

The first indication for Phosphorus is given by an intense sensation of burning in various parts of the body like the mouth, the lungs, the stomach, the small intestines, the anus, up the spine, the palm of the hand, and even the face. The patient craves for cold food, but this food is vomited as soon as it reaches the stomach. There is an insatiable hunger, an empty gone feeling in the stomach, in the whole abdomen.

In this chapter we will discuss about economics of raising 100 Khaki Campbell duck for egg production. Popular breed of ducks for egg production includes Khaki Campbell and Indian Runner. Among the egg laying breeds, Khaki Campbell is the best producer. Individual egg production of almost an egg a day in this breed for well over twelve months has been recorded and flock averages in excess of 300 eggs per duck per year are not uncommon. Khaki Campbell ducks weigh about 2-2.2 kgs and drakes 2.2-2.4 kgs. Egg size varies from 65-70 gms.

Cost and estimates for establishment of a 100+15 Khaki Campbell duck unit (under semi-intensive system)

Fidelity is said to exist in a communication situation when there is no distortion of the message from the time it leaves the source until it is received. The most effective communication occurs when the message transmitted and the message received are identical i.e., when complete fidelity is there. Some communication theorists believe that complete fidelity can never be achieved that no message is ever received exactly as it was intended by the source. This seems likely, since the source and receiver always have different frames of reference. It is clear, however, that the fidelity of any communication can be vastly improved by several methods.

Methods to Improve Fidelity

a) Use several channels of communication

To say the same thing, thus providing a duplication of information. Multiplying the channels used will make communication redundant. A smile, a node of the head, a firm hand shake or embrace and the greeting "Hi! How are you?" often convey the same meaning – meaning that would be conveyed through a single channel or redundantly through more than one.

b) Control the speed of communication

Information is processed by different individuals at different speeds. The rate varies for each situation and for each of the individuals in various situations. In talking casually to a few friends, we might speak very quickly where as in talking to a large group of strangers, we might want to talk more slowly because of the increased possibility for misunderstanding, the intrusion of noise. Whether we should speed up, slow down, or become more succinct (briefly and clearly explained) has to be a function of the feedback we gain. There is no specific rate that is ideal for all – except that rate at which a high degree of fidelity can be attained. It is the rate at which the amount of noise affecting the communication can be minimized. Sender and receiver should be aware of how communication works and interested in achieving the greatest f idelity possible

The most important property of a virus is its infectivity or ability to invade a cell and parasitize that cell to replicate itself. To measure infectivity, a titre is defined as the given number of infectious virus units/unit volume and an infectious unit is the smallest amount of virus that produces some recognizable effect in the host system. There are two basic types of infectivity assays (a) Quantal assays and (b) Quantitative assays.

Quantal assays do not measure the number of infectious virus particles present in the inoculum but denote a value for the virus titre where measurement is based on an all or none principle, CPE + or -, dead or alive etc. In the quantitative assays, the number of virus particles present in the suspension can be quantified.

Yam bean(Pachyrrhizus erosus), a leguminous crop, native of North America is cultivated for its edible tubers. Though six species of Pachyrrhizus are grown for tuberous roots, P. erosus, P. tuberosus and P. aphipa are important.

While P. erosus(L.) Urban(2n = 22) has pods of 7.5-13 cm long, P. tuberosus has longer pods of 13-30 cm. P. aphipa is a non climbing plant with fusiform tubers and this species is mainly cultivated in Bolivia.  Synonyms for P. erosus are P. angulatus, P. bulbosus and Dolichus erosus.  P. erosus is the species commercially cultivated in India.

Wild forms of yam bean are seen in Mexico and northern parts of Central America, where its cultivation is reported during pre-Coloumbus period.  Yam bean is believed to have spread from Mexico to Philippines, Amboina before 17th century.  Now, yam bean is cultivated in China, Thailand, Singapore, India and Hawaii.

In India, it is grown in Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa.  In Hindi, it is called as “Miskri kand” and in Bihar as “Kesaru”.

Objective: To extract and perform enzyme assay of Superoxide dismutase from plant.

Background information:

Superoxide dismutase (SOD, EC 1.15.1.1) is the enzyme that alternately catalyzes the dismutation (or partitioning) of the superoxide (O₂^-) radical into either ordinary molecular oxygen (O₂) or hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). Superoxide is produced as a by-product of oxygen metabolism and, if not regulated, may cause cell damage (Hayyan, et al. 2016). Hydrogen peroxide is also responsible for cell damage and may be degraded by other enzymes like catalase. Thus, SOD is an important antioxidant defense in nearly all living cells exposed to oxygen. One exception is Lactobacillus plantarum and related lactobacilli, which use a different mechanism to prevent damage from reactive O₂^-.

Water is an important input in crop production. It acts as solvent, reactant and used for transpiration and maintaining cell turgidity. Hence, knowledge of soil moisture is essential for making irrigation scheduling. For determining soil moisture status, the commonly used methods and instruments are discussed along with their advantages and disadvantages. The soil moisture can be measured by determining either the soil water content or the soil water potential. The measurement of soil water content is an estimation of the mass or volume of water in the soil, while the soil water potential is an expression of the soil water energy status. The relation between content and potential is not universal and depends on the characteristics of the local soil, such as soil density and soil texture. We can measure soil moisture content both by direct and indirect methods. In direct method, we remove the water from the soil sample by evaporation and the amount removed is determined. This method is popularly known as gravimetric method. We measure property of soil that is affected by soil water content under the indirect methods. Indirect methods employ tensiometric, nuclear (neutron and gamma radiations), electromagnetic (radar and time domain reflectometers), hygrometric (electrical resistance, capacitance, Infrared absorption) techniques besides remote sensing for making soil water models. In the following paragraphs both the methods of soil water measurement has been discussed.

I. General information

1. Cacti plants suitable for rock garden are Opuntia, Cereus and Mamillaria
2. Succulents suitable for rock garden are Agave, Aloe, Euphorbia splendens, Sedum, Sempervivum, Stapelia, Yucca, Furcraea
3. Ferns suitable for rock garden are Drynaria, Nephrodium, Nephrolepis, Polypodium
4. Famous rock garden of India is located at Chandigarh
5. The founder of Rock garden in Chandigarh is Nek Chand
6. Annuals suitable for rock garden are