eChapters

Exchanges sodium (Na+) is animportantparameter forsalt affected soils. This is estimated by extraction with ammonium acetate and then measuring the extract inflamephotometer.

Reagents

1. Neutral normal ammonium acetate solution (1 N CH₃COONH₄ of pH 7): Dissolve 77.09 g of ammonium acetate in distilled water and make up the volume to one litre. Adjust the pH of the solution to 7 with ammonia solution or acetic acid.
2. Standard solution of Na (500 mg/L Na): Dissolve 1.271 g of NaCl in distilled water and make up the volume to one litre.
3. Working standard solution of Na (100 mg/L): Dilute 200 ml of 500 mg/L stock solution to 1000 ml.

Management of crop diseases by various methods of exclusion in order to reduce the pathogen population in a geographical location / country may be achieved by either preventing introduction of pathogens or by growing disease-free seeds and planting materials. In addition, the inoculum of a pathogen reaching newly planted crops may be significantly reduced by adopting appropriate cultural practices also. The contributions of these factors for successful cultivation of crops are discussed hereunder.

8.1 Prevention of Introduction of Microbial Pathogens

Prevention of pathogen introduction is the primary responsibility of plant quarantines. Quarantines have been established by several countries by enacting appropriate laws that regulate the importation of plants, seeds and asexually propagated plant materials. These materials are placed in post-entry quarantines (PEQs) and examined by technical personnel for the presence of pathogens and pests. It is obligatory for the exporting countries to comply with the regulations of the importing countries. As the movement of plant products has increased enormously, following the adoption of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), vigilant enforcement of sanitary and phytosanitary measures has become essential. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) appointed an Expert Consultation on the Harmonization of Plant Quarantine Principles to formulate basic principles to determine standards for plant quarantine principles in relation to international trade (FAO 1991). According to the recommendations of the Expert Consultation, the sovereignty of the importing country is recognized and it has the right to implement the phytosanitary regulations deemed fit by that country. However, cooperation among countries was emphasized for the successful implementation of the recommendations by the member countries belonging to one of the eight regional plant protection organization set up after the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) held in 1951. A plant pathogen is recognized as of quarantine significance (QS), if its exclusion is considered to be essential to protect agriculture and natural vegetation of the importing country which has to be provide necessary infrastructure and trained personnel to prevent or delay its entry along possible routes. Lists of quarantine pathogens and the regulations to be followed are prepared by the importing country and made available to the exporting countries.

Excretion is the process of elimination of metabolic wastes that include toxic nitrogenous end products of the protein metabolism and the gas such as carbon dioxide (CO₂). These nitrogenous wastes are excreted through urine. Fecal matter is not included in the excretory products as it is simply the undigested food materials, and are not metabolic end products. The membranes of aquatic animals, that is permeable to gases, pass water and solutes between environment and body. Most aquatic animals maintain in their bodies a reasonably constant proportion of water and solutes. When it is different from the surrounding water, it requires some mechanism for regulation, which is known as osmoregulation. Most invertebrates in the sea have nearly the same salt concentration (isosmotic or isotonic) as the environment. Sharks and rays (elasmobranches) tend to have a slightly higher concentration of salts and urea (excretory end products) than seawater but the body fluids of most teleosts (bony fishes) have much lower salt concentration than seawater. Freshwater fishes, which live in a medium of lower salt concentration (hyposmotic or hypotonic), have the threat of hydration, so they have special mechanisms to get rid of excess body water. Marine fishes that live in an environment of high salt concentration (hyperosmotic or hypertonic) have the regulatory mechanisms by which excessive loss of water from the body is prevented and body osmolarity (proper osmotic concentration) is maintained by retaining less toxic nitrogenous excretory products. Marine fishes, which lose water osmotically across the gills and must get rid of salt, tend to drink large volume of seawater and produce very small quantities of urine (Fig-6.1).

23.1 Introduction

Excretion is the elimination of nitrogenous metabolic wastes from the gut and skin of the body. Through excretion, certain substances are removed while others are conserved. Fish are either ammonotelic or ureotelic animals. Kidneys play the most important role in excretion to maintain water-salt balance.

Fish gill ammonia excretion has been investigated for 80 years, but its mechanisms are still up for debate. A new paradigm has been established by the relatively recent identification of the ammonia-transporting role of the Rhesus (Rh) proteins, a family related to the Mep/Amt family of methyl ammonia and ammonia transporters in many living organisms. These proteins also occur as glycosylated proteins in fish gills (Wright and Wood, 2009).

Excretory system of an organism maintains its homeostasis i.e., a constant internal environment. Here in insects, the blood is haemolymph therefore it determines the excretion of an insect’s body. Excretion also eliminates the nitrogenous wastes and maintains the salt- water balance and also regulates the uniformily of haemolymph. The characteristic feature of insects is the presence of malpighian tubules to eliminate the metabolic wastes, whereas rectum walls carry out the function of reabsorption of salt and water. A minimum amount of water is excreted with nitrogen waste in order to conserve the water in body.

Asia and the Pacific collectively feed over 4.5 billion people and account for one?third of global agricultural trade. Yet the region’s agri?food supply chains face mounting pressure from climate change, geopolitical disruptions, infrastructure gaps, and volatile markets. This report analyzes fifteen focus countries to distill common challenges, showcase good practices, and highlight investment and policy opportunities that can transform regional agri?food systems into resilient, inclusive, and sustainable engines of growth.

In today's sedentary lifestyle, ensuring adequate exercise for pet dogs is crucial for their physical health, mental well-being and preventing obesity. To help pet owners understand the importance of exercise in maintaining the overall health and happiness their canine companions and how much exercise is adequate to different pet breeds are incorporated in this text.

Physical Health Benefits

Regular physical activity is essential for controlling weight and preventing obesity, which are common concerns among dogs. Obesity in dogs is associated with various health issues such as diabetes, heart disease, and arthritis. Engaging in activities like walking, running, and playing not only burns calories but also improves cardiovascular health, strengthens muscles, and enhances flexibility.

This practical assignment deals with cost benefit analysis, and gives a clear picture of concepts of cost benefit analysis in determining the worth of an enterprise.

PURPOSE

 To make the students familiar with the concept of cost benefit analysis in determining the worth of an enterprise.

 To impart the knowledge and skill required to compute the cost benefit analysis process effectively for assessing the economic viability of an enterprise.

This practical assignment is associated with the evaluation of communication fidelity with in a communication process where in all the communication elements are responsible to contribute the same.

PURPOSE

To understand the communication gap which arises due to emergence of noise in the channel

To understand the importance of communicator’s ability to organize and treat the message for making communication effective

To understand the distortion (addition or deletion or alterations in the original message) in communication.

This practical assignment is conceptualized and designed to guide students in identifying and preparation of project proposals. This assignment provides an opportunity for the students to explore, thing and putting their ideas on paper.

PURPOSE

 To provide an idea about project in entrepreneurship development.

 To identify the project and its importance.

 To know about the preparation of project.

‘Extension’ acts as a potential link between ‘research’ and ‘teaching’ which also facilitates transfer of technology. In this context new concepts, like Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) are becoming more meaningful now-a-days.

Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA)
i) RRA can be defined as a systematic but semi-structured study, carried out in the field by a multi-disciplinary team over a short period ranging from three days to three weeks, based on information collected in advance from published and/or unpublished sources, direct observations and interviews as to generate working hypotheses for subsequent action
ii) RRA study aims at generating information on rural life and conditions that is relevant, timely, accurate and usable in

Horticultural sector, which is contributing significantly for food and nutrition security, employment opportunity and poverty alleviation, got a real boost only in the early 1990s which coincided with liberalization of Indian economy. National area and production of horticultural crops are showing increasing trend over the years and production of horticultural crops has outpaced the production of food grain since 2012-13(Press Information Bureau, Govt. of India, Ministry of Finance, 2016). According to Economic Survey 2015-16, the share of horticultural output in agriculture is more than 33% over last decade and the sector contributes 30.4% to GDP of Agricultural sector. Horticulture sector accounts for 37% of total export of agricultural commodities at present and the exports have recorded sustained rising trend (Jha et al., 2019). The export status of APEDA (Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority) products in the recent years shows 28.18% growth in value of horticultural products over the previous year. The investment in horticultural sector with focused attention has resulted in spectacular change in the horticultural scenario and production and productivity of horticultural crops.

Exocrine Glands Types: Exocrine glands are generally of ectodermal origin and are widely scattered over the insect. Exocrine glands release their secreations through ducts into the lumen of various internal organs. Example: Accessory reproductive glands, salivary gland, silk gland. Gland is mainly composed of secretory epithelial cells. These are simple unicellular, bicellular, multicellular, complex multicellular (compound glands). These glands are ectodermal in origin and are secreated over the insect body.

Examples. Wax glands, lac glands, cephalic glands, poison glands.

1. Glands pouring (secreting structural materials). Some insects secrete substances that are used in building their houses (beehive) as protecting them (lac or cocoon).

Introduction

Cell surface components such as adhesins, polysaccharides, and proteins play major roles in the adherence of probiotic bacteria to the intestinal epithelium, interactions that might lead to pathogen exclusion and immunomodulation of host cells. Probiotic bacteria have the ability to produce exocellular polymers called Exopolysachcharides (EPSs). These exocellular polymers present in the surface of many lactic acid bacteria, including Lactobacilli.The adhesive properties of lactobacilli are directly linked to their surface properties which are influenced by the structure and composition of their cell wall. The cell envelope of lactobacilli, bacteria, is composed of the bilipidic plasma membrane with embedded proteins encompassed by the cell wall. The bacterial cell wall consists of a thick multilayered sacculus made of peptidoglycan (PG) with teichoic acids (wall teichoic acids (WTA) and/or lipoteichoic acids (LTA)), exopolysaccharides (EPS), proteinaceous filaments called pili, and proteins that are anchored to the cell wall through different mechanisms (Figure 1).

Some species of lactobacilli possess an additional paracrystalline layer of proteins surrounding the PG layer, referred to as the S layer. These macromolecules together may play crucial roles in determining species and strain-specific characteristics of lactobacilli by influencing host-microbe interactions and microbial adaptations to the changing host environment. Several studies implicate that cell surface components, either individually or collectively, involve in host-microbe interactions. Lactobacilli beneficially affect the host in many ways by producing abundant variety of EPSs through the activity of extracellular glycosyl transferases. Approximately 30 species of lactobacilli are described as EPS producers. Among them, the best known are L. casei, L. acidophilus, L.brevis, L. curvatus, L. delbrueckii bulgaricus, L. helveticus, L. rhamnosus, L. plantarum, L. johnsonii, etc.

Organic farming system in India is not new and is being followed from ancient time. It is a method of farming system which primarily aimed at cultivating the land and raising crops in such a way, as to keep the soil alive and in good health by use of organic wastes (crop, animal and farm wastes, aquatic wastes) and other biological materials along with beneficial microbes (biofertilizers) to release nutrients to crops for sustainable production.

Presently the farming situation urges need to develop farming techniques, which are sustainable from environmental, production, and socio-economic points of view. Modern agricultural production throughout the world does not appear to be sustainable in the long run.

Sustainable agricultural development “is the management and conservation of the natural resource base and the orientation of technological and institutional change in such a manner to assure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for the present and future generations”. Such sustainable development in the agriculture, forestry and fishery sectors, conserves land, water, plant and animal genetic resources, is environmentally non-degrading, technically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable. Consequently these concerns imparted a way to organic farming. It is the need of the day to understand the prospects and problems of organic farming to launch a successful and flawless organic production programme in the farm environment.

There are many explanations and definitions for organic agriculture but all converge to state that it is a system that relies on ecosystem management rather than external agricultural inputs. It is a system that begins to consider potential environmental and social impacts by eliminating the use of synthetic inputs, such as fertilizers and pesticides, veterinary drugs, genetically modified seeds and breeds, immunity booster preservatives, additives and irradiation. These are replaced with site-specific management practices that maintain and increase long-term soil fertility and prevent pest and diseases.

1 Sechium eduleis the botanical name of

 a) Chekurmanis b) Basella

 c) Chow-Chow d) Water Leaf

 2 Cylon Spinach is also known as

 a) Chayote b) Malabar Spinach

 c) Indian Spinach d) Water Leaf

 3 Botanical name of Leek is

 a) Allium porum b) Allium sativum

 c) Allium cepa d) None of thes

42.1 Introduction

Several fish species including their seeds, eggs and spores have been imported either occasionally or artificially and introduced into the water of our nation. These fishes are not native to our country and are called exotic fishes. Based on utility, these fishes include food fishes, game fishes and larvicidal fishes. In other words, the fish species that are not of Indian origin but transplanted into Indian water for cultural purposes are called exotic fishes. Exotic fish are an alien species that are non-indigenous having their origin in another country

1. INTRODUCTION

Exotic means anything of foreign origin and something not of native growth. Exotic vegetables are those species introduced to a country or location. Broccoli, Brussels sprout, Knol- Khol, Red Cabbage, Lettuce, Asparagus, Baby Sweet Corn, Chive, Garden beet, Kale, Swiss chard, Parsley, Parsnip, Chinese cabbage and Leek are important exotic vegetables. These generally require cool temperature.

Due to increasing foreign culture and increasing living standards, the demand of exotic vegetables is continuously increasing in cosmopolitan cities and five star hotels. These are good in taste and have high nutritive value. Most of the exotic vegetables can be used in salad and soups. These crops are very remunerative.

In urban areas only few part time grower devote time to the production of exotic vegetable. Exotic vegetable farming is profitable venture that require little capital and become source of livelihood to the farmer. The increase in their output level and profit will contributing to food security in the country. About 50% world population living in the cities. The rapid urbanization poses new challenges for food security. It is hard for most of the cities in the developing countries to provide sufficient employment for rapid increasing population. Some district of Maharashtra like Pune, Nasik & Satara now growing exotic vegetables like asparagus and broccoli. Cherry tomato, leek, lettuce, red cabbage & baby corn are also important as exotic vegetables.

In HP cultivation of Exotic Vegetable like asparagus, broccoli, lettuce, leek, chinese cabbage, snow pea, and parsley start picking up in Theog, Matyana, Saproon Valley, Sirmour, Katrain, Manali, Narkanda & Sanj Valley. These vegetables are beneficial for health as they are rich in phyto-chemicals and neutraceuticals. India is endowed with a wide range of tropical, sub-tropical and temperate agroclimatic conditions, therefore almost all kinds of vegetable crops grown around the world can be cultivated in one or the other corner. There is a lot of potential for exotic vegetables for domestic and export market. Important one are:

Exotic vegetables are those vegetables that are introduced or not common in India. Its area under cultivation is comparatively less and most of the growing area surrounds the targeted markets especially five star hotels and restaurants. Now a days, there is an increasing trend in cultivation of these high value vegetables because of increased demand and good profit. Farmers could sell these vegetables at a at a higher price when compared to traditional vegetables. They are mostly cultivated in net houses or poly houses. Some of the exotic vegetables popular in India are asparagus, celery, broccoli, lettuce, parsley etc.

Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis)

Asparagus is a dioecious monocot which produces tender succulent above ground stems known as spears from fleshy underground crown. These tender spears are used as vegetable, for cooking purpose and for the preparation of soups. The white crystalline substance, asparagine present in the juice of young shoots have diuretic properties and is used in cardiac dropsy and chronic gut. Asparagus is mainly cultivating in countries like USA, Germany, Spain, France etc. while in India, it is cultivating only in a negligible area. Asparagus is grouped under cool season vegetables. But newly emerging spears are susceptible to frost though a wide range of environmental conditions can be tolerated by mature asparagus. Asparagus is native to temperate Europe and Asia and has been cultivating for 200 years.

Morphology

Asparagus is perennial in nature and produce erect branched stem and grows upto a height of 1 to 3 m. The crop yield continuously for 10-15 years from the initial year of spear production. Asparagus roots are tuberous and the leaves are narrow and needle like. Male and female flowers are produced in different plants.

1. Introduction

In this time of technological advancement, social media has crept into the daily existence of individuals. It is Facebook, Twitter and Instagram which are standard ways of communication to bring people together. The aspect of social media as an auxiliary means of user engagement is also appreciated and embraced by libraries making it part of marketing communication. Using social media, libraries are able to efficiently disseminate information and operate online call centers. There are social media companies which have helped libraries extend their reach especially to young people who are known to be technology-oriented. Thanks to social media, users are able to find value in the services offered by the libraries and this turns out to be beneficial.

Expectations from Veterinarian as Extension Officer to Promote Entrepreneurship

The veterinarian has to act as facilitators to exchange experiences, share knowledge and information and participate in joint problem-solving. This requires linking farmers with the right support institutions and individuals who have expertise to deal with their specific concerns. Therefore, extension workers need to understand the training needs of the farmers and to identify the best trainers or training institutions to meet those needs. Part of this involves creating awareness about the training programme and explaining the objectives and content to potential trainees.

Extension workers should also assess the impact of the training on the behaviour of the participants and on the farm business Impact assessment is essential because it is the true indicator of the relevance and effectiveness of the training programme.

Extension workers can also provide more general support in the form of study visits, study tours. Farmers observe ?good entrepreneurial practices?, and learn from the practices of others. Farmers are taken on a tour. See markets first-hand, visit input suppliers and buyers, and make contacts. Farmers also visit farmers in other areas to exchange experiences and see new techniques. Such visits can transform a farmer?s view on production and marketing. Visits should be followed up with periodic evaluations to assess the impact of the visit and the use of new practices and techniques. They can also arrange seminars with possible topics like entrepreneurship, farm business management, market possibilities, successful case studies, new technologies, price assessments and market-oriented production techniques. Extension workers can also facilitate farmers working with producer organizations. Producer organizations can make useful contributions to developing entrepreneurship among farmers.

Veterinary practice has gone through different phases with different components
• Phase I - Patient and Veterinarian: objective was only to treat illness of  the patient by veterinarian.
• Phase II – Patient - Veterinarian – Owner: Veterinarian was to take  recognition of owner and his/her needs.
• Phase III - Patient - Veterinarian – Owner – Law: Additional  responsibility on veterinarians to work as per the law (e.g. Registration  at VCI, Veterinary jurisprudence, Giving evidence at court of law, Health  certificates,    Death    certificate,    Cruelty    to    animals,    export   and    import    law,     euthanasia rules, etc.)
• Phase IV - Patient - Veterinarian – Owner – Law – Environment: Further  added responsibility to protect environment.  E.g. Biomedical waste  management. 

6.0 General

No lessons can be drawn without the experiences of the past. In fact, much of engineering, rather all sciences have developed in bits and pieces from the experiences of the past. The engineers by and large have never become wiser in one day. They have become wiser slowly and slowly with their own experiences and from the experiences of past engineering works. Wisdom lies to gain wisdom from experiences/draw lessons from the marvellous engineering works constructed so far. It helps us in a direction for further development of technological skills.

Here an effort is made to draw lessons from experiences of the canals constructed in the past.

 There are several aspects of such experiences. A few important aspects of studies are:

 (i) Internal hydraulic sections of the canal with respect to discharge, topography, stability of side slopes, type of lining, operation and maintenance problems and their solutions etc.

 (ii) Design of canals banks (embankment) with respect to discharge, depth of flow, depth of cutting /filling, below/above natural ground level, type of soil, topography, operation and maintenance, drainage of banks etc.

 (iii) Canals aesthetics and arboriculture

 (iv) Other utility/service of canal such as multi-objectives of hydropower, irrigation, drinking/industrial water supply, social needs of recreation, forests etc.

In this chapter, the focus is on understanding the importance of experimental design and being familiar with key terminology. You’ll also learn about the three fundamental principles of experimental design and their roles in conducting experiments. Additionally, you’ll learn how to do randomization of treatments in various experimental designs using R.

Experimental Design

Experimental design is the methodical planning of scientific experiments for reliable results by controlling variables and minimizing biases. It serves as the foundation for effective research. Some key definitions to enhance understanding of this concept:

Key terminologies

• Experiment: Structured investigation for knowledge acquisition or validation.

• Experimental unit: Entity receiving treatment (e.g., land plot, pot).

• Treatment: Specific procedure for assessment and comparison.

• Experimental error: Variation among identically treated units.

Principles of Experimental Design

Experiments are vital tools in agricultural research, aiming to assess treatment effectiveness and quantify their impact. However, extraneous factors can confound results. To mitigate these issues, we depend on three core principles of experimental design: replication, randomization, and local control.

Introduction
Experimental physiology is a fundamental aspect of medical, veterinary and biological sciences that seeks to understand how living systems function through controlled experiments. It plays a crucial role in exploring the mechanisms behind normal and abnormal physiological processes. With roots in ancient medicine, experimental physiology was notably advanced by Claude Bernard in the 19th century, who introduced key concepts
like homeostasis and experimental methods that are still in use today. The interdisciplinary nature of this field connects it with disciplines such as biochemistry, pharmacology, and bioengineering, promoting a more comprehensive understanding of biological processes.
Investigating Physiological Processes
Experimental physiology aims to explore how organisms function at the cellular, molecular, organ, and systemic levels. This field investigates both normal physiology and the mechanisms behind diseases, offering insights into how organs and systems interact. Laboratory-based experiments are central to this learning process, allowing students and researchers to apply theoretical knowledge to practical scenarios. By observing how
tissues, organs, and entire systems respond to stimuli, experimental physiology enables the exploration of the relationship between structure and function in biological organisms. The practical experience gained in the lab is critical for medical and veterinary education, as theoretical knowledge alone is insufficient. In fields like physics and chemistry, materials can often be stored for future use. However, in biology, especially physiology, fresh
live tissue is often needed for fundamental experiments. For example, muscle and nerve tissues require careful handling and immediate use after isolation to study their responses to electrical stimuli. In in vivo experiments, live organisms are studied in their natural context, while in vitro studies use isolated cells, tissues, or organs to understand their behavior in a controlled environment.

Ex.No.1. MICROBIAL SPOILAGE OF FRUITS

Fruits are living structures that continue to perform metabolic reactions and sustain physiological processes for a considerable length of time after harvest. The post-harvest infection of fruits by microorganisms may cause serious losses of fruits both in terms of quantity and quality. Initial infection which may be the direct result of mechanical or insect damage is followed by invasion of fruit tissues by secondary infection by common saprophytic organisms. . Many bacteria and fungi, for instance, are involved in decay after harvest. Typical fungi include Alternaria, Botrytis, Colletotrichum, Fusarium, Monilia, Penicillium, and Rhizopus. These fungi are generally weak pathogens, in that they usually infest only weak or damaged fruit. Molds are the most predominant spoilage organisms in fruits. Fungal rots in fruits like apple show brown or cream coloured areas.

Bacterial soft rot caused by Erwinia carotovora is wide spread in fruits that are not very acid. Fruits like straw berries, melons are in direct contact with moist soil and become infected from that source.

History of Expert System

Expert systems were introduced by researchers in the Stanford Heuristic Programming Project, including the “father of expert systems” Edward Feigenbaum, with the Dendral and Mycin systems. Principal contributors to the technology were Bruce Buchanan, Edward Shortliffe, Randall Davis, Williamvan Melle, Carli Scott, and others at Stanford. Expert systems were among the first truly successful forms of AI software. In the 1980s, expert systems proliferated as they were recognized as a practical tool for solving real- world problems. Universities offered expert system courses and two thirds of the Fortune 1000 companies applied the technology in daily business activities.

Introduction

Expert system can be defined as a tool for information generation from knowledge. Information is either found in various forms or generated from data and/or knowledge. Text, images, video, audio are forms of media on which information can be found, and the role of information technology is to invent, and devise tools to store and retrieve this information. Statistical information is a good example of information generated from data while advises generated by an expert system is a good example of information generated from knowledge.

At the beginning, the concentration was mainly on textual information. Information technology used for textual information ranged from paper archiving tool to the sophisticated electronic computer software tools such as data base management systems, and hypertext tools. Images were very difficult to be included in an information system just few years ago till the scanners technology has been advanced together with the invention of the optical storage devises which have the capacity to store hundreds of mega bytes. This technology has enabled the developers to include images in their systems. Input peripherals to capture video and audio information have been also commercialized and are now available in the market. Storage of audio and video would be impossible unless large storage media were invented.

ABSTRACT

Expert Systems could be incorporated into extension education programmes to assist in solving problems using knowledge gathered from experts. During the process of problem solving, the Expert System becomes a source of educational material for the user. Hypertext may be incorporated into an Expert System as a means of providing the user with additional information. A hypertext approach to system development involves attaching information to specific phrases used in the system. The form of attached information can be textual, graphical or procedural. The methodology of developing expert system consists of two parts viz., developing computer-based Expert System and testing its effectiveness. The first part includes selection of most relevant subject matter area and procedure used in the development of an Expert System. The second part deals with the research design and technique adopted to test the effectiveness of computer-based Expert System versus human expert.

Sustainable development and environment friendly technologies in agriculture are the need of the time. It is also necessary that these technologies should be able to solve farmers’ problems that vary according to his socioeconomic and ecological condition. To reach the wide as well as diverse section of our producers, the extension system should be location specific and very fast. The technology must be based on farmer’ need, existing resources of farmers, appropriate marketing and should be considered the cost benefit ratio. Sustainable development of producers, efficient technology as well as effective transfer of technology within a short period of time is thus utmost important in recent period. These require larger proportion of human skill combined with electronic information system. In this connection, expert system can be effective in transfer of technology to meet the need of the time. Expert system is the turning point and breaking through of artificial intelligence developing, it is breaking through from generic thinking to special knowledge applying, from theory method to actual system design. Over the years the field of application of expert system has been widening rapidly. Many countries have made expert system in different field, such as: financial decision-making, medical treatment and diagnose, diagnose on breakdown of machinery, chemical engineering, geological prospecting, military affairs, and other agricultural domain. Recently, many researchers in India has been identified the advantage of this system and already developed expert system in several commodities in agricultural crops.

There are many problems in the fields and offices for which we seek the advice of an expert. We recognize persons and experts not only for their knowledge through study but also their ability to apply the knowledge very effectively by virtue of the experience gained over a period of time. The need for experts increases in both dimensions as numbers as well as in the spheres to which expertise is needed. The sphere in which the opinion of an expert can influence decisions or actions is referred to as the domain of the expert. For last few years application of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has brought revolution in many fields. It is the need of the hour that we explore the possibility and the fields of application in agriculture to acquire maximum benefit from the most promising technology of this information era. ICT is one of the thrust areas in the list given by the planning commission (Now Policy Commission), where emphasis can be given to increase the production and productivity of agriculture commodities. During last 50 years, lot of research has been done in the field of Agriculture, which has not been properly extended to the farmers. ICT could be applied as a means in extending the technologies brought up by National Agricultural Research System (NARS) to the farmers.

Advanced artificial-intelligence models can achieve high predictive performance, but their black-box nature limits clinical trust and accountability. This chapter examines interpretability and explainability as essential requirements for trustworthy healthcare analytics. It reviews intrinsically interpretable models, post-hoc explanation methods, example-based approaches and network-based explanations. A framework combining data preparation, model selection, ensemble learning, calibration, uncertainty estimation and explanation validation is presented. An explainable sepsis-risk prediction case study demonstrates logistic modelling, ensemble methods, Bayesian uncertainty, SHAP attribution and network analysis. The chapter also addresses causal reasoning, adversarial robustness, temporal and multimodal data, human-centred explainability, ethical responsibilities and regulatory requirements for dependable clinical AI.

Lotus

(Nelumbo nucifera)

Family: Nymphaeaceae/Nelumbonaceae

Origin: Southern Asia

Flower colour: White to deep pink

Plant part used: Flower (almost all parts)

Basic chromosome number: X=8

Somatic chromosome number: 2n =16

In the national and International scenario weeds continue to cause major problems in agriculture thereby, reducing yield and quality of crops by competing for the water, nutrients and sunlight essential for vigorous crop growth. Holm et al. (1997) listed about 200 weed species that cause 95% of weed problems for humans. As international travel and global trade increased, more plant species with potentially weedy traits are being moved around the world, giving rise to new, invasive weed problems, particularly in non-agricultural or natural ecosystems (Mack et al., 2000). The importance of weeds is reflected by the rapid growth of the use of chemical herbicides in agriculture throughout the world. The effectiveness of herbicides has dramatically increased yields in many cases and, in turn, stimulated development of new chemical herbicides. However, despite massive efforts, weeds continue to cause significant losses. These losses result from the selection and emergence of species that are not controlled by currently available herbicides, the inability of an herbicide to selectively control certain weedy species without injury to crop species, or the development of resistant strains. Among different management practices plant pathogens have also been suggested as one of several possible means of controlling the weeds that remain problematic or even as an alternative to chemical herbicides. Plant pathogens can be used to control weeds in a similar way to chemical herbicides. The term bio herbicide is coined to refer to herbicides based on any living organism (e.g. fungi, bacteria, viruses, protozoans). When the active ingredient used is a fungus, the product is called a mycoherbicide. Mycoherbicides can be applied in many ways, e.g. as aerial sprays, through ‘cut and paste’ application or in a powder form to be applied to the soil.

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Agriculture is a very important sector for the sustained growth of the Indian economy. About 70 per cent of the rural households and 8 per cent of urban households are still dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. Though, industrialization of the Indian economy has adversely affected the share of agriculture in the GDP, the fact can not be ignored that India has undergone a series of successful agricultural revolutions-starting with the ‘green’ revolution in wheat and rice in the 1960’s and 1970’s, the ‘white’ revolution in milk to the ‘yellow’ revolution in oilseeds in 1980’s. As a result, India has achieved self-sufficiency in agriculture. Applications of agricultural inputs at uniform rates across the field without due regard to in-field variations in soil fertility and crop conditions does not yield desirable results in terms of crop yield. The management of in-field variability in soil fertility and crop conditions for improving the crop production and minimizing the environmental impact is the crux of precision farming. Geographically, India is widely distributed into several agro-climatic zones, and the information needs for the farming systems in these areas are entirely different. Integrating the application of available technologies to realize farmers’ goals requires a systems approach to farming.

15.1 INTRODUCTION

Vegetables are rich sources of many essential micronutrients, including vitamin C, vitamin K, folate, thiamine, carotenes, minerals, and dietary fibre. In addition, vegetables are rich in health related phytochemicals, such as antioxidants. Such phytochemicals play an important role in reducing the risk of many chronic diseases. Therefore, it is essential to produce more vegetables to feed our ever growing population. In this context, use of genetically improved, disease resistant and high yielding varieties in precision farming may play a significant role in increasing vegetable productivity and production.

15.2 EXPLOITATION OF GENETIC RESOURCES

The genetic resources of a crop may be defined as the sum total of hereditary material, i.e., all the alleles of various genes present in a crop species and its wild relatives. Genetic resources are broadly grouped into two major types (i) cultivated germplasm, and (ii) wild germplasm. Alternatively, they may be termed as (i) indigenous (from the country in question), or (ii) exotic (from another country) based on their place of origin. Genetic resources consist the following five types of materials: (1) land races, (2) obsolete varieties, (3) modern varieties or varieties in cultivation, (4) breeding lines, and (5) wild forms and wild relatives.

Introduction

Okra, Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench, is annual herb grown in tropical and subtropical parts of world for green tender immature fruits and consumed as cooked mostly fresh but sometimes sun dried or frozen also used as vegetable. Some parts of plant and roots are used for medicinal as well as purification of sugarcane juice. Green fruit contains vitamins, calcium whereas seeds possess 13-22 per cent edible oil and 20-24 per cent edible protein. India is leading producer of okra and exporting fresh as well as processed fruits to other countries and also ranked first in area (0.48 million ha.), production (3.5m tones) and productivity (9.8 t/ha) during 2005 against the world area (0.78 million ha.), production (4.99 m tones) and productivity (6.4t/ha).

ABSTRACT

Tinospora cordifolia, a versatile medicinal species with antipyretic and immunomodulatory properties is one of the indigenous sources of the therapeutically valuable alkaloid, berberine. However, the plant contains only meagre amounts of this alkaloid. Hence upgradation of the content of berberine in Tinospora, through biotechnological interventions assumes importance. Four week old leaf, petiole and stem derived calli of two ecotypes of Tinospora viz., Vellanikkara ecotype and Madurai ecotype, subcultured on to Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium, supplemented with various growth regulators, were incubated in light and screened for the presence of berberine employing thin layer chromatography. MS medium with NAA @ 2 mg l^-1 supplemented with BA or kinetin, each at 2 mg l^-1, was identified as the basal production medium for in vitro production of berberine, yielding 7.55 μg and 7.36 μg berberine respectively, per gram of calli. Calli produced from stem segments registered maximum amount of berberine compared to leaf and petiole derived callus cultures. Increasing levels of sucrose in basal medium did not have a favourable influence on the expression of berberine in the test calli. Reducing nitrate and phosphate content of the basal medium to half their strength resulted in enhanced berberine production in in vitro cultures of both the experimental ecotypes. Favourable influence of precursor feeding on upgrading the content of berberine in leaf and stem derived calli of both the ecotypes of the experimental species was also confirmed in the study.

Introduction

Chilli is one of the most important spice and condiment of daily use in all most all the Indian houses. The fresh and dry fruits are the rich source of Vitamin A (292 IU) and Vitamin C (111 mg/100g). Its pungency not only improves the taste of the different preparations but also improve their storability. The colour of the fruits is due to the presence of the pigment capsanthin and pungency and acridity is due to the presence of alkaloid oleoresins knows as capsaicin (C₁₈ H₂₇ O₃ N). The capsaicin has a very good medicinal importance and also having importance for the pharmaceuticals industries for preparation of the different types of the drugs, because of the presence of the antioxidants like Vitamin A, C and P (Rutin). The green and red sweet pepper, bell pepper, Pimiento (heart shape) and cherry pepper are used in the fresh market processing industries for stuffing pickling and dehydrated processed meat. It is used as green as well as dry powder, pickles, salad and for industry to prepare the medicines for external and internal uses.

ABSTRACT

The Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) is a group of rhizosphere-colonizing bacteria producing substances which increase the growth of plants and/or protect plants against pathogens. The use of PGPR has become rather common practice and is on the rise in many regions of the world. Inoculation with PGPR also aims at reducing the application of potent ially pollut ing chemical fertilisers and pesticides. Biocont rol microorganisms have unquestionable potential for managing plant diseases, insect pests and nematodes besides increasing crop productivity. Interest in biological control has recently been intensified because of imminent bans on effective pesticides, widespread development of pesticide resistance in insect pests and plant pathogens and a general need for more sustainable pest control strategies. Active and long-term colonization of the root surface of the plant and effective expression of disease-suppressive traits are generally considered prerequisites for successful suppression of horticultural crop diseases by rhizobacteria. The important mechanism of biocontrol by PGPR involve competition and production of antibiotics such as 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG), pyoluteorin (PLT), pyrrolnitrin, phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA), 2^-hydroxy phenazines and phenazine-1-carboxamide (PCN). Siderophores, including pyochelin and pyoverdine which chelate iron and other metals also contribute to disease suppression by conferring a competitive advantage to biocontrol agents for the limited supply of essential trace minerals in natural habitats. Induced systemic resistance (ISR) is a state of increased defensive capacity developed by the plant when appropriately stimulated, through activation of latent resistance mechanisms induced by diverse agents including rhizobacteria. Microplants are first grown in vitro under aseptic conditions devoid of microorganisms. They are then transferred to a post vitrum substrate for acclimatization. By creating a beneficial rhizosphere in microplants at an early stage, the plants could be better protected against biotic and abiotic stress that occurs in the greenhouse or in the field. The beneficial rhizosphere can be created by biotization of microplants with PGPR. The search for PGPR to control postharvest decay of fruit crops has been actively pursued and promising strategies have been practiced nowadays. Biological control of postharvest diseases of perishable horticultural crops with PGPR is complex and involves a number of mechanisms to suppress the development of the disease. PGPR, being a potential candidate in disease management through multiple mode of action, it becomes highly imperative to know its different role in the management of plant pathogens.

Abstract

Plant roots influence the biological, chemical and physical properties of rhizosphere soil. These effects are a consequence of their growth, their activity and the exudation of organic compounds from them. There is now considerable scope for the new ideas to be extended to the rhizosphere. The role of soil microorganisms in sustainable productivity has been well construed. In recent years, root inhabiting (rhizozosphere) bacteria (rhizobacteria) is gaining importance. The beneficial effects of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) has been variously attributed to their ability in improving the crop production, protection against phytopathogens, soil health and environmental quality. However, there is a need for isolation, identification and improvement of potent PGPR’s to utilize them ultimately as promising bio-inoculants. This review embodies some recent developments to evolve strategies for the better biotechnological exploitation of PGPR’s.

ABSTRACT

In Kerala, the commercial cultivation of tomato is limited due to the bacterial wilt disease caused by the soil borne pathogen Ralstonia solanacearum. The release of bacterial wilt resistant varieties like Sakthi, Mukthi and Anagha has increased the area under tomato. But, these varieties are susceptible to tomato leaf curl virus diseases caused by Germini group virus and transmitted by white fly (Bemisia tabaci). The disease incidence varies from 10.77% to 90.5% and the yield loss is tremendous. Unless the tomato variety resistant to ToLCV disease is resistant to bacterial wilt also, it cannot be recommended for cultivation in the State.

The somaclonal variations have been well exploited in developing disease resistant varieties in many crops. Therefore an experiment was formulated to study the somaclonal variations and to screen the somaclones for resistance to tomato leaf curl virus disease in L. esculentum var. Sakthi and L. pimpinellifolium.

The somaclones of Sakthi and L. pimpinellifolium along with the parental lines were planted in earthen pots containing potting mixture with bacterial wilt sick soil. These were screened for resistance to ToLCV disease by artificial inoculation of the vector Bemisia tabaci inside the cages. The observations were recorded on ex vitro survival, biometric characters and reaction to ToLCV and other major diseases.

The ex vitro survival was 46.2% in Sakthi and 36.6% in L. pimpinellifolium. The somaclones of Sakthi showed wide variation for plant height and spread compared to that of L. pimpinellifolium. Some of the somaclones exhibited ‘gigantism’ with potato leaved plants. The yield of the somaclones of Sakthi were higher than that of parental line.

14.1 INTRODUCTION

The efforts for harnessing the natural resources for sustainining the human race have been ‘on’ since the beginning of the civilization. The basic needs of food, fuel and fodder are obtained from the land resources with the combination of water and sunlight. The combination of information technology and use of hi-tech equipments paved the way for the introduction of precision horticulture. Precision horticulture may be defined as application of a holistic management strategy that uses information technology to bring data from multiple sources to bear decision associated with agriculture production, marketing, finance and personnel. Enhanced input efficiency is an important component of horticultural production under precision horticulture site specific management. Enhanced input efficiency in crop management can be obtained only when suitable varieties, desired amount of nutrients and water based on calculations, at right time and by proper method are used.

With recent advances in geographic positioning system, remote sensing, data processing, harvesting equipment, fertilizer and pesticide applicators, the approach can be used from a more practical stand point to identify variability and to use the variable rate of inputs over an entire field.

In recent years, there is considerable awareness about the nutritional security and food safety. More emphasis is given to underutilized fruits due to their high nutritive and medicinal value in addition to being resistant/tolerant to many biotic / abiotic stresses. The demand of these fruits are gradually increasing owing to tremendous potential for commercial exploitation aimed at improving the economic status of the poor and marginal farmers. An area, which needs immediate attention, is the collection, documentation, conservation and utilization for their sustained production and popularization.

Abstract

Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f) Nees (Family: Acanthaceae) is one of the most popular and valuable medicinal plants with high trade value. It is out mentioned in various systems of medicine since ancient times in Indian, Malay, Chinese and Thai. Andrographis paniculata is native to Southeast Asian countries i.e., India, China, Taiwan and Sri Lanka. In India it is distributed from Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Assam to Mizoram and also cultivated throughout the country. The plant being used as Ayurvedic medicine in various diseases. The principal chemical constituents are lactones, diterpenoid and flavonoids. Andrographolide, neoandrographolide are the principle secondary metabolites of Andrographis paniculata with more than 80 compounds reported till now. Modern studies revealed that Andrographis paniculata has an extensive range of pharmacological activities such as hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antimicrobial, antidiarrhoeal, anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), anti-oxidant and anti-pyretic. Therefore, such plants need value addition for product development.

ABSTRACT

The study narrates the importance of occurrence of groundwater in the crystalline terrain and its yield in different lithologies. In general, yield of well in the crystalline terrain of the study area is low. Average or mean yields for groups of wells in various regions are most commonly between 7 to 20 gpm: The smallest yields are encountered in granulitic terrain and this may be due to fracture closing rapidly with depth. The jointed and weathered geneses yield small but steady supply of water at shallow depth. Chemical quality of the groundwater from this terrain is generally satisfactory for most purposes.

ABSTRACT

Remote sensing, especially high resolution satellite data has a major role to play in locating (localizing) mineral targets. The present study is carried out on exploration and discrimination of magnetite ore deposits of Tirthamalai region of part of Dharmapuri district, Tamil Nadu, India, using IRS P6 LISS IV high resolution satellite data. The applicable image processing techniques and associated put forth of field knowledge is used in the present study. The image processing classifications namely band rationing, principal component analysis and contrast enhancement are carried out in visualizing images using ERDAS Imagine 8.7 software. The visual interpretation of FCC of digital data shows that the raw pixel values of iron ore bands in the blue ranges 95 to 120, green ranges 85 to 125 and red ranges 55 to 75 and provided better delineation for iron formations.

The interpretation of satellite data shows that the iron ore band exhibits in dark color, linear shape, fine texture and sharp contact with associated rock types. To rectify and reduce misinterpretation all above image processing techniques are undertaken along with the detailed filed-check in the selected test sites using GPS 178 and delineated the in situ iron formations. The interpretations show that the occurrence of few more iron bands and weathered formations along with massive formations in the region traced on the imagery since the absorptions themselves are different. The availability spectral absorption of iron formation is inferred highly in visible and near infrared region (0.9-1 Ìm). Remote sensing high resolution satellite data proved that the satellite parameters are important criteria and play a vital role in mapping of low-grade iron ore deposits of the Tirthamalai region of Dharmapuri district of Tamil Nadu state.

Feed additives

Feed additives may be defined as those substances that are added in livestock feeds to improve quality, digestibility and utilisation of feeds. It is also aimed at production improved quality of livestock produce, performance and health of the livestock and birds.

Classification of Additives