eChapters

Observation recording: To record the response of various tree species to the light, fire, drought, frost and wind, frequent visits of the forest areas which are affected by fire, drought and frost should be conducted. Studies relevant to light requirement in various growth stages of tree and ability to stand against various intensities wind are very lengthy that requires long time periodic studies.

Observation recording: Today green felling is completely banned. Fuelwood species are managed under clear-felling systems and tree species infected by insects and pests are felled selectively. The students are advised to visit the fuelwood plantations and forests areas where selective felling is going on.

In manipulation of plant development, training and pruning are important for which our knowledge about plant development and its phenology has to be complete. These practices are important in fruit crops.

Introduction

The wild seedling of walnut has been found growing in west regions right from the Carpathian Mountains in Eastern Europe across Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Southern USSR and Afghanistan to the North-Western Himalayas. It is believed to have originated in Iran and the areas surrounding it. The Returning army of Alexander brought it to Europe from Iran. Almost all parts of the walnut tree are utilized. The fruit has excellent flavour and is mainly consumed as a dried fruit, eaten for table purposes. The kernels contain about 60–75% fat and oil, 16% carbohydrate, and 15% protein. Jammu and Kashmir is the largest walnut producing state in India and the USA is a leading producer of walnuts.

Weather and climate have profound influence on agriculture of a region. There are some differences between these two terms. Weather describes the state of the lower atmosphere of a place with respect to temperature, precipitation, wind direction, wind speed, humidity, cloudiness and pressure etc. over a short period of time. The short term variations over minutes to days are indicated as weather of a location. It says whether the atmosphere is hot or cold, rainy or dry, sunny or cloudy, still or cyclonic and so on usually for period of 24 hours. The weather may vary from place to place and from time to time due to difference in temperature, cloudiness, humidity, rain and other events of atmosphere. It may be sunny at one locality, but rainy at another locality.

Introduction

The fruit is a hard-shelled, many-seeded berry with its pinkish brown, aromatic sour and sweet pulp being the edible portion of the seeds embedded in it. The tree is one of the hardy trees of arid and semi-arid regions.

Principle

β-Glucosidase (BG) plays a major role in the degradation of soil organic matter and plant residues. It catalyzes the hydrolysis of β-d-glucopyranosides, the final, rate-limiting step in the degradation of cellulose, the most abundant polysaccharide providing simple sugars for the soil microbial population. BG has been shown to be sensitive to changes in soil and residue management as well as an early indicator of changes in SOC before these changes are reflected in total or organic C analyses. The method is based on colorimetric determination of the p-nirtrophenol released by β-glucosidase when soil is incubated with buffered PNG solution and toluene.

Introduction

Resources must be managed effectively to achieve maximum sustainable agricultural production from limited natural resources. Many of the resources that agriculture depends on (such as water and land) are finite and need to be well managed for long term sustainability. In most cases, this means avoiding adverse effects on the society and environment. With the development of agricultural sectors, the utilization patterns of natural resources in agriculture are important concern for policy makers in present climate change scenario. Unlike other production activities, agricultural activities also utilize factor resources to produce several marketable products or services. The way the natural resources are utilized in agriculture and its concern for society and environment, plays a vital role in economic viability and ecological sustainability of agriculture.

There are several conventional methodologies to estimate the level of profit and efficiency of production system at enterprise level. Only marketable factors are considered in conventional methods keeping the non-marketable component of production system away. Non-marketable component of a production system includes various social and environmental dimensions of it. Nammalwar (1997) has explained the concept of environmentally sound and sustainable enterprises, which include the physical resources, ecological resources, human use value, quality of life values with either way impact of agriculture and environment. In recent years, non-marketable dimensions of agricultural activities have been given importance because of its concern for the environment and society. This chapter provides a methodology that incorporates non-marketable component of agricultural enterprise besides its marketable component. The Resource Cost Ratio (RCR) approach is a modified methodology developed by Debnath et al. (2010) from Domestic Resource Cost Ratio (DRCR) that Morris (1990) has applied at macro-economic level to determine the comparative advantage between countries.

1. In developed countries, the major objective of price policy is to____________

a) Prevent drastic fall in agricultural income

b) Increase the agricultural production

c) Both a & b

d) None of the above

2. In developing economies it is to _____

a) Prevent drastic fall in agricultural income

b) Increase the agricultural production

c) Both a & b

d) None of the above

3. The important objectives of the new agricultural policy are _____

a) Augment facilities for All-Round Development

b) Infrastructural Development

c) Reviving and strengthening Co-operatives and local communities

d) All the above

Agronomical practices is the collection of operations starts from field formation, tillage, sowing, irrigation, manure and fertilizer management, pest control and harvest etc. Though, the type of agronomical practices varies with the crop, the basic function of various agronomical operations remains the same for all the crops. Considering that, understanding the basics of general agronomical practices is crucial for good agricultural practices and optimum production.

Tillage

Tillage is the basic activity of preparing the land for the crop production.

Introduction 
Artificial intelligence (AI) has undoubtedly had an important influence in the restructuring of higher education by altering traditional teaching techniques and opening the way for long-term growth and innovation. This paradigm shift is distinguished by the usage of sophisticated software algorithms, data mining models, and data analytics into pedagogical and administrative practices. AI technologies have the potential to transform higher education by improving individualized learning experiences, streamlining institutional procedures, and enabling novel research approaches. Universities and colleges that embrace AI technology can not only better prepare students for the problems of tomorrow’s labor market, but also make important contributions to accomplishing sustainable development goals (Lomine, 2024). The inclusion of AI into higher learning is about more than just keeping up with technical breakthroughs; it is about completely altering the educational landscape to satisfy the demands of a digitally native population. Furthermore, the use of AI in this domain not only promises to improve educational outcomes, but it also poses important concerns regarding equity, ethics, and educators’ future role. Artificial intelligence (AI) has undeniably transformed the structure of higher learning, providing a blueprint for long-term progress and innovation in academia. The prospect of AI to revolutionize traditional education techniques and drive long-term growth for future leaders is unsurpassed. Aggarwal, Sharma, & Saxena (2023) proposed that incorporating AI into higher education is critical for educating graduates for the dynamic needs of tomorrow’s labor market as well as also building a more inclusive and forward-thinking academic environment. This paradigm shift toward integrating AI in academia has the capacity to generate a lively and efficient learning ecosystem which suits the different demands of students while also giving real-time feedback to improve academic achievement and retention rates. Furthermore, the application of AI in academic settings can transform research processes by enabling data-driven insights, boosting interdisciplinary partnerships, and hastening the pace of innovation in a variety of disciplines of study.

It appears that cattle were domesticated prior to 4000b)c)From 1961 to 2021, the amount of milk produced worldwide has almost tripled, reaching 918 million tonnes. Production of milk is carried out by about 150 million households worldwide. Smallholders produce the majority of the milk in developing nations, and milk production supports nutrition, food security, and household livelihoods. For small-scale farmers, milk offers comparatively quick returns and is a significant source of revenue. Small-scale farmers using native or local cattle breeds produce the majority of the milk in developing nations; however, to meet the growing demand for milk and milk products in peri-urban areas, more improved or cross-bred cattle are being used) India is an agricultural country that contributes significantly to the economy. Animal husbandry is an adjunct to agriculture and has vital livestock resources, with cattle and buffalo playing an important role in improving the socio-economic status through contributions to milk, meat, hides, and draft power for agricultural operations. India is one of the world’s top milk producers contributing 24 percent of global milk production and having a large number of indigenous

ountains occupy twenty-four per cent of the global land surface area (about 25 million km²) and are home to twelve per cent of the world’s population (GTOS, 2008). Water is present in snow, glaciers, wetlands, and rivers in the mountains. They supply watersheds by providing groundwater recharge to hill communities and communities living in vast basin areas (Hua, 2009). Whatever happens in these mountains affect nearly 1.2 billion people, one-fifth of the world’s population living in the river basins, and up to three billion indirectly in food and energy production. Despite harbouring some of nature’s richest natural resources, mountains are home to some of the world’s poorest people, many of whom are marginalized subsistence farmers. These communities living in the mountain region have hardly benefited from the ‘green revolution’ and global economic growth.

Natural farming in India is based on core principles that advocate for harmony with nature, self-reliance, and ecological sustainability. More than a farming system, it represents a holistic philosophy that mirrors natural ecosystems in agricultural practices. Inspired by India’s traditional wisdom and promote prominently by Subhash Palekar through Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF), it stands as a low-input, environmentally responsible alternative to chemicaldependent agriculture.
No external input is a fundamental principle of this approach. Farmers are encouraged to avoid chemical fertilizers and pesticides, instead utilizing resources available on the farm—such as cow dung, cow urine, compost, and herbal preparations—to maintain soil fertility and manage pests. This closed-loop system reduces reliance on market-purchased inputs and encourages farm-level self-sufficiency.
Soil regeneration is another key tenet, viewing the soil as a living system teeming with beneficial microbes. Techniques such as organic mulching, maintaining soil cover, and applying Jeevamrutha (a mixture made from cow dung, cow urine, jaggery, and pulse flour) enrich the soil microbiome. These practices improve soil structure, moisture retention, and nutrient availability, leading to healthier crops.
Seed treatment in natural farming avoids chemical coatings. Instead, Beejamrutha—a preparation made from cow dung, cow urine, lime, and native soil—is applied to seeds before sowing. This enhances seedling health, protects against disease, and promotes vigorous early growth, rooted in natural protection.
Natural pest management uses plant-based deterrents rather than synthetic chemicals. Preparations like neem oil, garlic extract, and Agniastra (made from cow dung, cow urine, tobacco, and chili) are applied to control pests. These reduce chemical residue in crops and help preserve beneficial insects and overall biodiversity.

Introduction

Agricultural extension has been developing from past more than 100 years. The term was first used by Universities of Cambridge and Oxford, in the year 1867. Chinese people have been following extension approximately from past 2000 years. There are four generations of agricultural extension in Asia: colonial, diverse top-down, unified top-down and diverse bottom-up extension. Communication takes place mainly in two ways in extension system: paternalism versus participation and persuasion versus education, which aims to change behaviour of rural people. Many approaches have emerged in extension which includes ICT based extension.

In this chapter we will discuss about economics of raising 100 Khaki Campbell duck for egg production. Popular breed of ducks for egg production includes Khaki Campbell and Indian Runner. Among the egg laying breeds, Khaki Campbell is the best producer. Individual egg production of almost an egg a day in this breed for well over twelve months has been recorded and flock averages in excess of 300 eggs per duck per year are not uncommon. Khaki Campbell ducks weigh about 2-2.2 kgs and drakes 2.2-2.4 kgs. Egg size varies from 65-70 gms.

Cost and estimates for establishment of a 100+15 Khaki Campbell duck unit (under semi-intensive system)

Education: Education is the production of desirable changes in the behaviour of the people. It is the production of desirable changes in human behaviour in knowledge (things known), attitudes (things felt) and skills (things done), in all of them or in one or more of them.

Behaviour: Includes three components viz., knowledge, attitude and skill

Knowledge (Cognitive): It includes facts, concepts, principles and relationship.

Attitude (Affective): An attitude can be loosely defined as a feeling towards some object, person and situation or idea.

Introduction

In the midst of the rapid speed of global change and in a highly competitive and risky business situation, the knowledgeable consumer gains power, and the market shift towards quick product creation. Innovation has emerged as a crucial component of success, particularly for new businesses, involving the development of economic productivity and operational and working producers (Baron and Tang, 2011). The systematic and planned transformation of a person into an entrepreneur is known as entrepreneurial development. The process of making an entrepreneur involves teaching everyday people how to be business owners, as well as imparting the necessary information, management, technical, financial, and marketing abilities. The definition of the entrepreneurial developmentprograme is a course created to assist a person in enhancing their entrepreneurial drive and obtaining the knowledge and talents required to carry out their position as an entrepreneur successfully (Kumari, 2014).

3.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in the Southern Europe, Mediterranean region and grows throughout Northern, Eastern, and Western hemispheres specifically in Asia, Rumania, North America, Europe, India, Russia, Germany and France.

• In India, cultivated in Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, and Haryana.

3.2. Economic importance

• The leaf stalks are used both as vegetable and salad.

• A common practice in most Indian households is to have few fennel seeds at the end of every meal to freshen the mouth.

• Used for various digestive problems including heartburn, intestinal gas, bloating, loss of appetite and colic in infants.

• Source of copper, potassium, calcium, zinc, manganese, vitamin C, iron, selenium and magnesium.

• The seeds are used as condiment

• Seeds yield 4-5% volatile with anethole as major constituent.