eChapters

Endowed with varied agro-climatic situations, topography and soil type, India has been a leading vegetable producing country in the world occupying the second
position in vegetable production after China with an annual production of 87.53 million tonnes from 5.86 million hectares having a share of 14.4 per cent to the world production. With commercial cultivation of as many as 61 annual and 4 perennial vegetables, India is the most diverse vegetable growing country in the world (Prakash et al., 2006).

Protected cultivation practices can be defined as a cropping technique wherein the micro environment surrounding the plant body is controlled partially or fully as
per plant need during their period of growth to maximize the yield and resource saving. Cultivation of vegetables under protective structures such as net houses has become popular in recent years (Kaur et al., 2004; Cheema et al., 2004; Singh et al., 2004).

Elephant foot yam, Amorphophallus campanutatus Blume (= Arum campanulatum Roxb.) belongs to the family Araceae. It is also known as elephant yam, Elephant bread, Suran, Sweet yam etc. It is a native to Tropical Asia and is found throughout the plains of the Indian sub-continent and some other parts of South East Asia and Africa growing both wild as well as cultivated.

Leafy vegetables are the herbs that are grown for their edible greens (leaves). Leafy vegetables are also called pot-herbs, greens, vegetable greens, and leafy greens are plant leaves eaten as a vegetable, sometimes accompanied by tender petioles and shoots. They come from a very wide variety of plants. As per Singh and Arora (1978), about 220 species belonging to the families, Amaranthaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Araceae, Asteraceae, Convolvulaceae, Malvaceae, Nymphalaceae, Papilionaceae etc. occur in India.

Coriander, Coriandrum sativum L. is an erect annual herb belongs to the family Apiaceae. Coriander may also be referred to as Cilantro, Chinese parsley or Dhania. In India it is cultivated in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh etc. The leaves of the plant are variable in shape, broadly lobed at the base of the plant. Leaves are slender and feathery higher on the flowering stems.

Curry leaf, Murraya koenigii (Linn.) is one of the most important plants exclusively known for its culinary and medicinal value. Leaves of the plant are widely used for flavouring food in Indian cookery. Leaves are also used in many Indian Ayurvedic and Unani prescriptions (Joseph and Peter, 1985). The whole plant including leaves, stems, flower, fruits and roots are used as tonic, stimulant, anti-flatulent, anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant (Khan et al., 1997) and anti-carcinogenic (Khanum et al., 2000).

Moringa oleifera Linn. belongs to the family Moringaceae, that consists of only one genus with about 13 species of deciduous trees (Keay, 1989). It is believed to be the native of India-Pakistan-Nepal borders, but now is becoming widely distributed and grown in several countries, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions (Satti et al., 2013).

Sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas (Linn.) originated in northwestern South America around 8000 - 6000 BC. The plant is a dicotyledonous, herbaceous, trailing vine which is the only economically important member of the family Convolvulaceae. The plant is generally characterised by starchy, succulent and tuberous storage roots; alternating palmately lobed leaves and medium sized sympetalous flowers which grow individually and vary in colour from white to varying degrees of purple (Austin et al., 1991).

In countries like India, where majority of the population are vegetarians, leguminous vegetables serve as the major source of protein in the diet. In the developing third world countries, especially for the poor, the major protein source in the diet are vegetable legumes. Most leguminous vegetables are rich in phosphorus, calcium, iron and a number of essential vitamins. Crops like soybean, groundnut and Bamabara groundnut are also rich in fats which are needed by the body to absorb vitamin A.

The green pepper or chilli is reported to be the native of tropical America (Thompson and Kelly, 1957). This was widely cultivated in Central and South America in early times and was unknown in Europe prior to the discovery of America. The chilli belongs to the family Solanaceae and genus Capsicum. Only four species are under cultivation, out of which the cultivation of the two, Capsicum pendulum and Capsicum pubescens, are restricted to South and Central America.

Members of the family Cruciferae commonly used as vegetable include Cabbage, Cauliflower, Broccoli, Brussels sprouts and mustard etc. The genus Brassica is known for its important agricultural and horticultural crops. A dislike for cabbage or broccoli can result from the fact that these plants contain a compound similar to
Phenyl thiocarbamide (PTC), which is bitter or tasteless to some people depending on their ‘taste buds’ (Theresa, 1995).

Tomato, Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. is an important vegetable cultivated throughout the world; both outdoors and under protected structures for fresh market consumption and processing. In India this nutritive rich vegetable is grown over an area of 0.60 m ha with an estimated production of 11.9 mt. Productivity of tomato in India is lower (18.6 t/ha) than the world productivity (27 t/ha) (Anonymous 2009). Tomato is grown in a wide range of climatic conditions across states of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus Moench), otherwise known as Lady’s finger or Bhindi is an annual malvaceous plant and the sixth important vegetable crop cultivated throughout the country mostly in kharif and summer seasons. Though it is reported to be originated from tropical and sub-tropical Africa, but it has gained much importance in India as the secondary centre of origin. India ranked first in okra production in the World and major okra producing Indian states are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Assam (Anonymous, 2011).

Potato is one of the major non cereal food crops in the world and ranks fourth after rice, wheat and maize. Due to its high production potential per unit area and time, the crop has been recorded for sustaining millions of lives during the times of war and hunger. Native of South America, this crop was introduced into India in
early seventieth century. Currently India ranks 3rd for area and 2nd for production in the world [AICRP (Potato) Bulletin No. 2].

‘Cucurbits’ is a term coined by Liberty Hyde Bailey for cultivated species of the family Cucurbitacae (Robinson and Decker-Walters, 2004). Presently, the term has been used not only for cultivated forms, but also for any species of the family Cucurbitacae. Among vegetables, the cucurbits form one of the largest groups with their wide adaptation from arid climates to the humid tropics.

Brinjal (Solanum melongena Linn.) is one of the widely used vegetable crops and is popular in many countries viz. Central, South and South-East Asia, some part of Africa and Central America (Gurubban, 1977). It is also known as the aubergine, eggplant, melongene, guinea squash etc. Various data indicate that from the several species that evolved in Africa, one (Solanum incanum), gave rise to a distinct species which spread to South-East Asia as the wild ancestor of Solanum melongena (Lester, 1998).

Taxonomy is the science of identifying (discovering), describing, naming and classifying organisms. It is a complex summing up of knowledge starting with thorough analysis to base the synthesis that will end up in the name of a taxon. Correct identification of biological taxa is a necessary pre-requisite to all other enquiries about the biological world.

• Pathogen attacks the crop at all stages of crop growth.
• Symptoms appear on leaves, nodes, rachis, and glumes. On the leaves, the lesions appear as small bluish green flecks, which enlarge under moist weather to       form the characteristic spindle shaped spots with grey centre and dark brown margin (Leaf blast).

India has successfully reduced pesticide consumption without adversely affecting the agricultural productivity. This was facilitated by appropriate policies that discouraged pesticide use and favored IDM application. Despite it, adoption of IDM is low owing to a number of socio –economic, institutional and policy issues. 

The eventual objective of promoting IDM is to empower its users to engage sustainable agricultural production with long term positive impacts on human being, poverty and environmental health.The impact of successful implementation of IDM approaches cannot be achieved if IDM is not strategically placed within national policies for agricultural production and protection. There are number of the national policies and related regulations that have direct impact on IDM adoption and scaling up in India.

Validation of IDM technologies is ultimate test for IDM knitted with available technologies under ground realities of the field. Since IDM is multidisciplinary, multiorganizational and multi-locational participatory approach, involvement of all the stakeholders, including farmers and field technicians is to be ensured. The following guidelines have been used as spirit behind the methodology of IDM validation.

A broad range of products and services are required by farmers in order to adopt Integrated Disease Management , calling for close interaction between them, the
scientists and the experts developing IDM technologies. IDM must be based on farmers’ concerns and circumstances.

Sampling: Disease assessment activity within plots and fields.
Survey: To move over a specific place for some observation.
Surveillance: Repeated or sequential survey of some place/ locality for some observation to ascertain the changes /fluctuations in the objects of study.

First aid is the initial treatment of a person suffering from a pesticide exposure, before seeking proper medical attention. The first action is to remove the person from the source of the exposure by removing pesticide from the skin, removing contaminated clothing, or getting the person to fresh air. While doing this, be careful to avoid contaminating yourself.

Of late, there has been a growing trend for individuals and companies to “Go Green” or be more environmentally friendly. There has also been a opinion that natural and organic products are healthier or safer. The pest control industry has responded to these changes in our culture and business markets with innovations in products, materials, and methods. Requests for “organic” based services have grown to a point where most pest control providers offer services that use only natural pesticides.

In order for a plant to become diseased, three conditions must be present: (1) a pathogen, (2) a favorable environment and (3) a susceptible host. All the strategies we use to manage plant diseases work to remove or limit one of these factors, thus breaking the plant disease triangle. The key to sustainable plant disease management is to establish an agro- ecological system that is favorable to plant growth and development at the population level and adverse to pathogen evolution and epidemic development based on interactions among plants, pathogens, vectors and environment.

Pesticides have a direct impact on agricultural economy and food security. The presence of spurious, fake, illegal or duplicate pesticides in the market result in losses of yield and farmers’ income. Over 30% of plant protection chemicals sold in India are not registered, fake, sub-standard, misbranded, counterfeit, unapproved and illegitimate pesticides, bio pesticides and bio-stimulants. They are developed by passing regulations and field trials.

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that up to 40% of food crops are lost due to plant pests and diseases annually. Such losses not only threaten global food security but also have the potential to limit food access due to unavailability of food, or sharp increases in food prices. But this challenge is also an opportunity to find new ways to help crops better withstand adverse conditions in a farmer’s field.

The techniques used in disease management mainly based on two principles,: Prevention or prophylaxis and cureThe first principle prevention includes disease management tactics applied before infection i.e., the plant is protected from disease. It includes: avoidance, exclusion, eradication, resistant&protection. Second principle curative action: functions with any measure applied after the plant is infectedi.e., the plant is treated for the disease.It includes therapy.

Integrated disease management (IDM) needs competence in three broad areas
I. Prevention
II. Monitoring
III. Intervention

Integrated disease management includes use of physical, cultural, biological, chemical and biotechnological for disease management. It may comprise computer aided sampling, decision making, improved farm tools & equipment.Farmers are the primary decision makers in Integrated disease management programs. They have to decide individually and collectively how to manage all diseases that may harm crops.

Decisions need to be taken by the farmer as to how to implement disease management in the most effective and economic manner. Many of these decisions are taken a long time before any diseases appear, such as the crop rotation, time of planting, amount of fertiliser, etc. During the growing season, however, continual decisions need to be made regarding disease management.

1. Detection means the existence of whatever do you want detecting but diagnosis is that the analysis in depth of existing thing.
2. Objectively look for, listen to the credible complains, symptoms that is sometimes not visible at all.
3. It is art or skill of identifying some abnormalities, i.e. which is below or higher than the normal permissible range/threshold.

With some important exceptions, applied plant pathology was for many years rather single minded. It aimed at eradication or total exclusion of a plant disease , and it relied largely on a single control method, application of chemical poisons.

Disease in plants defined as the series of invisible and visible responses of plant cells and tissues to a pathogenic organism or environmental factor that result in adverse changes in the form, function, or integrity of the plant and may lead to partial impairment or death of plant parts or of the entire plant.

The term “plant health” has two overlapping meanings. In the more specific meaning, plant health refers to plant quarantine, while in the less specific use, it covers all areas of plant protection, such as plant pest management, plant quarantine, and pesticide regulation and application.

Milk, commonly referred to as the “ideal food,” is an essential source of nutrition for human consumption. Because of the growing human population and the rising demand for milk and milk products, there is more interest in and concern about the quality and safety of dairy products. Milk comprises chemical substances with various functions in the human body, such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and trace elements (vitamins, minerals, etc.) (Guetouache et al., 2014).

The exploration of facts about healthy and nutritious food has increased over the years. The advent of advance scientific tools has elucidated facts regarding the role of diet or nutrients in regulating gene expression (Sales et al., 2014). Various studies based on molecular interactions in food has revealed that many dietary components such as proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, vitamins and phyto-constituents has the tendency to regulate gene expression.

The term nanoscience defines controlling or modifying the shapes and sizes of the materials such that they lie in the range of a nanometre (1 nm = 10^-9 m) scale, typically 1-100 nm (Chavada et al., 2016). The application of these materials and systems by their suitable designing and production is what is known as nanotechnology. Richard Feynman, in 1959, first discussed the possibility of this advanced technology. However, the term was first used by Norio Taniguchi in 1974 (Chavada et al., 2016).

Starch is the most abundant polysaccharide carbohydrate reserve which is available in different parts of plants such as roots, stem, leaves, seeds, flowers, and fruits. It is considered an excellent source of energy and plants utilizes carbon from it for their metabolic activities (Smith, 2001). It is composed of glucose units linked together by glycosidic bonds to form amylose and amylopectin polymeric chains (Abbas et al., 2010).

Enzymes (biological catalyst) can be defined as a substance which initiates or fastens the reaction rate, without being consumed during the reaction. Enzymes function as a catalyst in various biological processes taking place in all life forms. Although enzyme synthesis takes place inside living cells, they can even function as a catalyst in the in vitro processes, which makes it suitable for many industrial applications. For product formation in any chemical reaction, reactants or substrates has to overcome the transition state.

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is one of the most effective methods for determining the functional groups and potential molecular interactions between membrane chemical molecules. Understanding of (infrared) IR absorption band placements in the spectrum as wave numbers can be used to identify the various chemical constituents (such as aromatic amides) that may not be visible by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.

Biosensors are the next generation detection devices, use biological sensing elements like enzymes, nucleic acids, antibody, cells, organelles, tissues, receptors; have got varied applications in the field of drug discovery, diagnosis, biomedicine, food safety and processing, environmental monitoring, defense and security etc. Microbial biosensors are analytical device that uses naturally occurring or engineered microbial cells as the recognition elements to detect physiological changes in cells with the help of suitable physicochemical transducer.

The last two decades have seen rapid growth and development in the industrial sector as well as urbanization has increased. Due to globalization and mass production of commodities, the situation in the modern world nothing like ever before. Food and dairy industries are also not left out from this massive expansion. Due to changing behavior and food consumption habits too, there has been a surge in the risk of foodborne illness. This has created a problem in terms of public health and sustainability

Thermal heating methods are used from long time to decontaminate the food products from microorganism and therefore increase its shelf life and ultimately make the product safe for human consumption. But these methods diminish the sensory, physicochemical and nutritional properties of food (Barba et al., 2012). Also, the cost of generation of heat in manufacture of food product make the product costlier in thermal processing and also create environmental issue.

Electricity is one of the fundamental phenomena of nature. Electricity or electric current is caused due to the movement of charged particles i.e., electrons. Due to the potential difference between two points in a conductor, electron movement takes place. The potential difference between two points is caused due to the difference in charge density. Electron tends to flow from lower potential to higher potential which causes electricity to flow. In general, the electrons flow from cathode (negative) to anode (positive) but in a wire electricity, electrons flow from anode to cathode when connected to a battery or any electricity source.

High-pressure processing (HPP) is a novel method for non-thermal preservation technique of food that inactivates harmful pathogens and vegetative spoilage microorganisms. HPP is an alternate, non-thermal food processing method, wherein the food is subjected to a very high pressure range from 100 -800 MPa (1MPa = 145.03 Psi or 10 Bar). HPP is also referred as High hydrostatic pressure processing, Ultra high-pressure processing, Hyperbaric processing and Pascalization (Rao et al., 2014).

Milk is considered to be a perfect food which contains almost all the macroand micronutrients required for normal body growth. However, it is highly perishable in nature which poses problem during its storage. It gets spoiled within few hours after milking if not processed or cooled immediately. It can also be a source of several disease causing microbes as it is conducive for the growth of microorganisms.

The number of people is expected to increase from 7.2 billion to 9.6 billion by 2050. (UN, 2013). This represents a 33% increase in population, but the demand for agricultural products will climb by approximately 70% during the same time period as the global quality of living rises (FAO, 2009). Livestock is essential for ensuring food security.

Integrated farming places a strong emphasis on the fundamental functions of agro-ecosystems, balanced nutrient cycles that are adapted to the demands of the crops, the health and wellbeing of the farm’s livestock, and a holistic management strategy that sees the entire farm as one connected system (Kochewad et al. 2017). Family farming, often referred to as integrated farming, provides the opportunity to profitably utilize the farm family’s available labor to the fullest extent throughout the year, leading to an increase in income and family contentment.