eChapters

The pursuit of a dependable and abundant harvest stands as the cornerstone of sustainable agriculture. However, this pursuit is increasingly challenged by the growing complexities and uncertainties of our changing climate. Chapter 9, “Harnessing Climate Intelligence for Assured Harvest,” delves into the critical role of climate analysis in navigating these challenges and securing predictable yields. This chapter outlines a strategic approach to achieving “assured harvest” by effectively leveraging “climate intelligence.” This intelligence encompasses a deep understanding of historical climate patterns, real-time weather monitoring, and future climate projections. By strategically analyzing this wealth of information, we can move beyond reactive measures towards proactive and informed decisionmaking across the agricultural lifecycle. Our strategy to harness climate intelligence for assured harvest will focus on several key pillars:
• Deciphering Climate Variability and Change: We will explore the nuances of both short-term weather fluctuations and long-term climate trends, identifying their specific impacts on crop growth, development, and potential losses. This involves understanding critical parameters like temperature, rainfall, humidity, solar radiation, and the frequency of extreme weather events relevant to specific crops and geographical regions.
• Assessing Climate-Related Risks: A crucial element of this strategy involves identifying and quantifying the risks posed by climate variability and change. This includes analyzing the probability and potential severity of events like droughts, floods, heatwaves, cold spells, and shifts in pest and disease patterns.
• Developing Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices: Armed with a robust understanding of climate risks, this chapter will explore a range of climatesmart agricultural practices designed to mitigate these risks and enhance resilience. This encompasses strategies related to crop selection, optimized planting and harvesting schedules, water management, soil health improvement, and integrated pest and disease management.
• Leveraging Technological Advancements: The power of climate intelligence is amplified by advancements in technology. We will examine the role of remote sensing, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), precision agriculture tools, and sophisticated weather forecasting systems

Introduction

Advances in food preservation methods have supported the journey of food science from that of a cookery science to a fast growing industrial technology. Food preservation knowledge deals with the way to prevent spoilage and maintenance of quality in foods. Spoilage is the deterioration in quality brought about by inherent biochemical and chemical changes, as well as microbial metabolism during food storage. Basic principles of food preservation (Frazier et al., 2008) remains the same, but newer methods for achieving the goal is added through research fuelled by a consumer demand for fresh-like foods with convenience and safety. Scientific information on novel processing methods are beautifully compiled (Cullen et al., 2011; Da-Wen Sun, 2014; Tokuþoðlu and Swanson 2015; Doona, 2018).

In-depth knowledge of physiological activities of micro-organisms in presence of preservation agents is essential for preparation of safe foods with prolonged shelf life. Besides this, it is necessary to understand the effect of food constituents on microbial resistance against inactivation agents, to identify critical dose requirement. This profound knowledge would also help to understand kinetics of microbial inactivation and to develop mathematical models suitable for a realistic design of process parameters. For better appreciation of the following sections, readers are encouraged to have fundamental knowledge in microbiology and food processing. The sections in this chapter cover advanced microbiological knowledge pertaining to the preservation aspects of food.

Pankaj Kumar Singh and Chandramoni

Introduction

The term “probiotic” is derived from Greek and means pro: for and bios: life (for life) in contradiction to antibiotic which means: against life. The term probiotic was first introduced by Lilly and Stillwel (1965) to describe growth-promoting factors produced by microorganisms. Parker (1974) first specified designation “probiotic”. He defined probiotics as microorganisms or substances, which contribute to the balance of the intestinal micro flora. Crawford (1979) defined probiotics as a culture of specific living microorganisms, primarily Lactobacillus spp. that are implanted in the organism and ensure the rapid and effective establishment of a beneficial intestinal population. Fuller (1989) discussed the definition given by Parker (1974) and considered it too broad, as cultures, cells, and metabolites are also included in antibiotic preparations. He redefined “probiotic” as a live microbial feed additive, which beneficially affects the animal by improving its microbial balance. Havenaar et al. (1992) pointed out that the definition of “probiotic” made by Fuller (1989) was restricted to feed supplements, animals, and their intestinal tract. Therefore, they generalized Fuller’s definition of “probiotic” as a mono or mixed culture of living microorganisms, which beneficially affect the host by improving the properties of the indigenous micro-flora. Through 1989, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) advised manufactures to use the term: “direct-fed microbial” (DFM) instead of “probiotic” (Miles and Bootwalla, 1991). The USFDA defined DFM as a source of live naturally occurring microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and yeast. Vanbelle et al. (1990) pointed out that most researchers considered “probiotic” for selected and concentrated viable counts of lactic acid bacteria. Koh et al. (1992) pointed out that as a biological product for newly hatched chicks a bacterial culture producing acetic acid could be used. Such a culture might be supplied to the chicks either through their drinking water or by the feed. For controlling the biological balance in the chicken’s intestinal tract different probiotics may be used. The US National Food Ingredient Association presented, probiotics (direct fed microbial) as a source of live naturally occurring microorganisms and this includes bacteria, fungi and yeast (Miles and Bootwalla, 1991). According to the currently adopted definition by FAO, probiotics are: “live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit on the host” (FAO/WHO, 2001). More precisely, probiotics are live microorganisms of nonpathogenic and nontoxic in nature, which when administered through the digestive route, are favorable to the host’s health (Guillot, et al., 1998; Thomke and Elwinger, 1998,).

Nano-technology refers to technology on a nano- meter scale, specifically less than 100 nano-meters. The novel nano-particles are tiny spheres (fullerenes) or tubes (nanotubes) made from carbon atoms. It facilitates the development of future inventions transversely a vast array of fields. New nano-particles are being made of silicon, ceramic, polymers or even natural ingredients that break down in the body. The characteristics that make these particles functional in the food industry include optical properties, reactivity to temperature, and biodegradability. They can be used as probes or filled with flavorings or nutrients for delivery. Highlights on the categorisation of agriculture with nano- food technology and nutrition are given in Fig 1.

There are three key elements in nano-technology. They are: (1) substances at nano-scale exhibit novel physical and chemical phenomena with novel functions (2) allowing to measure, control and operate material at the nano-scale that transform them to functions. (3) allowing the union of nano scales of materials for exceptional properties.

Introduction

Meat is a highly nutritious animal product relished by majority of the population in India. India produced around 6.2 million MT of meat in 2013 (FAOSTAT, 2013), standing at fifth position in world meat production and accounts for only 3 per cent of total meat production in the world (APEDA, 2017). Contribution of livestock sector to national economy in terms of gross domestic product (GDP) was 4.1 per cent in 2012-13 (Islam et al., 2016). The percentage of meat subjected to processing in India is only 1-2 per cent compared to 70 per cent in developed countries (Sen et al., 2013). Relatively higher proportion of poultry (7-8%) is converted into further processed poultry products. Major proportion of the meat produced in the country is derived from old and unproductive animals. Availability of spent birds is also on the rise due to the rapid growth in poultry industry. Meat from such animals and poultry has less desirable palatability attributes, especially tenderness, which makes it more suitable for processing into value added products. This will provide consumers with more acceptable, convenient, healthy and versatile products while simultaneously increasing the economic returns to the processor. The profitability of meat industry is critically dependent in deriving extra value from lower-value meat cuts. To achieve this, value must be added in the eyes of the consumer across the wide chain of value added products.

Pollution

Pollution is an undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air, water or land caused by excessive accumulation of pollutants (substances causing pollution).

Kind of pollution

Pollution can be classified in many ways:

Output of dairy products from animals, output from the poultry, goats, sheep, exotic birds, animal growth, their living environments and diseases affecting them, are known to be governed by weather conditions. Development of quantitative climate-animal relationships and efficient utilization of daily weather data for monitoring the various aspects, continues to be a significant research priority. Traditionally the major climatic factors on which attention has been focused are: temperature, humidity, solar radiation and length of day. The effects of these climatic elements on reaction of animal physiological parameters have been studied by measurements of (a) animal?s ability to prevent heat loss by such means as increased evaporative cooling from the body surface, (b) its ability to reduce heat production by lowering its metabolic rate through more efficient energy utilization (c) its ability to put up with a rise in body temperature or with the consequences of compensatory reactions. Experiments are usually done in climate chambers since field measurements often involve difficulties of interpretation in separating out the effects of climate from those of nutrition. Water consumption, water intake, insensible perspiration (diffusion moisture, different from the moisture which is actively secreted), protein intake, intra- and extra cellular volumes, plasma and blood volumes, body temperature, respiratory activity etc., of animals are all known to be affected in relation to changes in air temperature and humidity. Airflow also is an adjutant factor since it affects temperature and humidity. Significant seasonal changes have also been frequently recorded. These in turn, have profound effect on output of milk yield and several other animal products. Development of predictive techniques for assessment of milk yield or other products had been recognized as a thrust area, so as to develop suitable and viable strategies for storage; transport, marketing and distribution of several livestock products. Several gross relationships between climate and its influence on physiological and biochemical aspects of animal behaviour have been worked out in the past on seasonal basis but a more intensive study on short period stress effects on the output products in relation to prediction of output is the need of the hour. For pursuing research on these aspects, an appropriate understanding of the specific meaning and use of terminology such as ?thresholds?, ?optima?, ?normal?, ?extreme events? in more detail is considered appropriate. Methods of analysis also need to be addressed and evolved.

Drying of the Spices

Drying is an important mode of preservation and it ensures microbial safety of the spices.The main purpose of drying is to increase the shelf storage and make the seasonal spices available round the year with minute losses of nutrients, flavor, taste and color (Maroulis, 2003). During drying, there is a continuous transfer of heat and mass due to the heat application which eventually leads to moisture removal from the product (Akpinar, 2006) (Hashim, 2014). Since, the sensory, nutritional and functional attributes of spices are partially or totally affected by the drying process, the adequate choice of drying technique becomes requisite. There exists a number of conventional drying methods including solar drying (El-sebaii, 2012), freeze drying (Ciurzy nska 2011), vacuum drying (Nadi, 2012), osmotic dehydration,hot air drying and fluidized bed drying (Onwude, 2016). However, these drying techniques lead to poor quality of the spices because of the longer duration of treatment and high amount of energy. To combat with the issues of poor quality, there has been a significant development of the novel techniques, which includes- microwave, ohmic, infrared, pulse electric field, radio- frequency, ultraviolet, ultrasound, supercritical and heat pump heating, in the drying of the agricultural crops. These novel techniques are found to produce higher quality products as compared to the conventional drying techniques (Moses J. N., 2014). The microwave and radio frequency heating technologies are developed in such a manner that they are capable of partial or complete removal of the conventional methods of heating/ drying (Onwude, 2016). The use of these novel techniques has gained a keen attention for the drying purpose of spices. Some of the researchers have also proved that combination of conventional and novel drying techniques leads to better product output.

16.1 Entering Biological Data into Computer

After the forms have been designed, the database in ready for entry of biological data. Biological data is entered one record at a time. To enter the biological data, the user issues a command, which calls up and displays the appropriate form with blank fields. The user then keys in the data for each field in the appropriate spaces. In this manner, the user enters the data for the first record, then for the second record, and so on. In most database systems, the records are automatically assigned a number as they are entered.

16.2 Saving Biological Data into Computer

While entering data into the fields, the tab key or enter key is usually used to move to the next field. Pressing enter or tab key in the last field on the form saves the record in the database and moves to a new, blank form for the next record to be entered. In addition to using the tab or enter key to move forward through fields, one can directly go to any field on the form at any time by clicking on it with the mouse.

An animal, which has more or less of comparable (similar) physiology and body composition with various biological system as human beings, which are tiny, easy to handle, less expensive and co-operative are called as “Laboratory Animals”. Importance of Laboratory Animal in Bio-Medical Research Laboratory animals are used in basic biological research, disease diagnosis, immunology, virology, applied medicine and demonstration/teaching. Materials collected from diseased animals need confirmation through microbiological and pathological means of diagnosis. Rats, Beagle dogs and primates are engaged in toxicological research. These are used to study the functions of organs, response of a particular organ or the whole system to drug and the method of evolving surgical techniques and demonstration of experimental surgery need experiment animals. Hamster have cheek pouches which may extend to halfway down the length of the body, are used to temporarily store food and, when full, should not be mistaken for a tumor. An entire shelled peanut

The recent social, political, and economic challenges worldwide necessitate the adoption of new strategies by governments and development agencies to enhance people's livelihoods. These challenges underscore the importance of understanding and appreciating the growing significance of livelihood issues, particularly sustainable livelihood mechanisms. Addressing issues such as poverty, hunger, food security, gender equality, and economic growth—which are central to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 17)—requires a comprehensive understanding of the complex nature of livelihood challenges, livelihood diversification, and sustainable livelihood strategies.

Governments and non-governmental organizations, especially in developing nations, are under increasing pressure to develop coordinated strategies and interventions aimed at livelihood diversification. These efforts are crucial to sustainably improve the livelihoods of the poor, disadvantaged, vulnerable, and excluded populations.

12.1. INTRODUCTION

Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] is an important food/feed/fodder crop in more than 90 countries across the world and it is one of the cheapest sources of energy and micronutrients (Reddy et al., 2009; Ashok Kumar et al., 2011). Considerable efforts have been made to improve sorghum productivity through genetic enhancement and crop production and protection research all over the globe. Sorghum being an often cross-pollinated crop with cross pollination up to 2-15% depending on genotype and environment (House 1985), initially, pure-lines were the target products although phenomenon of heterosis was demonstrated in sorghum as early as in 1927 (Conner and Karper, 1927). Predominant self-pollinating nature of sorghum with tiny florets with single seed per emasculation and pollination prevented commercial exploitation of heterosis for commercial sorghum production. However, the discovery of a stable and heritable cytoplasmic-nuclear male-sterility (CMS) mechanism (Stephens and Holland, 1954), enabling large-scale, economic hybrid seed production gave a fillip to the exploitation of heterosis since early 1960s. The first commercial sorghum hybrid CSH 1 was released in 1964 in India. Using CMS mechanism, large number of commercial hybrids have been developed and released/marketed for commercial cultivation in all sorghum growing regions with strong Indian National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS).

3.1 Chemistry of greenhouse gases (ghgs)

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are atmospheric-gases that have capabilities to absorb and radiate-back the infrared (IR) radiation in the earth-atmosphere system (Figure 3.1). In this process the atmospheric-gases absorb and radiate- back IR radiation in lower atmosphere effectively emitting and absorbing heat energy heat energy. They maintain the heat budget of earth-atmosphere and keep our plant warm. If we typically see the chemistry of those gases, the key point is that they should have dipole moments. This is the property which makes them capable to absorb and radiate-back the range of IR radiation. In a molecule when valence-electrons are not equally shared in a bond between the two atoms, a slight positive charge is developed above one atom and a negative charge on the other atom. That charge difference of the different atoms in a molecule generates the dipole moment. For instance, in water vapour (H₂O- vapour), an unequal sharing of electrons and or separation of charge causes dipole moment. In H₂O, the centre has a positive charge at the hydrogen atoms and negative charges are located on the oxygen atom. The magnitude of dipole- charges, vibration and stretching of O-H bond generates certain frequency of the oscillating dipole moment that actually regulates the absorption capacity of IR radiation by H₂O vapour.

Accurate estimation of embryonic/foetal age play vital role in the developmental anatomy research related to morphogenesis and histogenesis of an organ or system. The observations and recordings of normal developmental features of embryos/ foetuses at successive stages of gestationare very important for studying functional development of an organ in anatomical research. The documentation of normal embryonic and fetal growth can serve as a guide for understanding the consequences of harmful influences at various stages of gestation (Evans and Sack, 1973). Post-mortem studies have provided valuable information on fetal development, identifying stages such as implantation, appearance of forelimb bud, tail development and hind limb development (Alberto et al., 2013). The normal development of external features of animals has been described by Evans and sack (1973), however, subjective assessment of foetal age from the external features alone is not much reliable, although it may be useful adjunct to more precise measurements (Richardson et al., 1990). For accurate estimation of developmental age, fetal measurements are needed which show a consistently rapid rate of growth and which are least variable at a given age (Richardson et al., 1990), however, these parameters are affected by individual variation and by breed differences within a species (Greenwood et al., 2005).
A number of methods have been discussed by many workers for estimation of age of foetus in animals. The method mainly focus on foetal biometry recorded either inside uterus during normal gestation process or after taking out foetus during post-mortem examination. In-utero foetal biometry allows estimating gestational age and time of parturition by ultrasonographic methods (Manning

1. Introduction

With the fairly recent advent of inexpensive, rapid sequencing technologies that continue to improve sequencing efficiency and accuracy, many species of animals, plants, and microbes have annotated genomic information publicly available. It is important to use this genomic information for the identification and isolation of novel and superior alleles of important genes from gene pools of the organisms

13.1. INTRODUCTION

Pearl millet crop has a wide adaptability to local environments. It is hardy and can be grown in areas which are very hot and dry and on soils too poor for sorghum. Pearl millet is considered more efficient in utilization of soil moisture and has a higher level of heat tolerance than even sorghum and maize. It is adapted to warm and dry climate but most of the area under the crop is in drought- prone areas of the world. In these areas, pearl millet is usually grown with limited inputs, sparse rainfall, low soil fertility, and also face disease and pest problems, with correspondingly poor yields.
 
The low average yields are primarily a result of the hot, dry conditions where pearl millet is mostly grown, rather than pearl millet plant’s capability. Pearl millet hybrids grown under better conditions yield 3000 to 4000 kg/ha compared to 300 to 800 kg/ha when moisture and soil fertility become limiting factors. A majority of the subsistence farmers who typically cultivate this crop are unable to take advantage of high yield potential because they have limited options for improving their management practices. Pearl millet production can be increased through growing varieties/hybrids with improved tolerance to drought, diseases and responding to higher rates of fertilizer applications.

Introduction

The rapid growth and socio-economic upliftment of a developing country are directly related to the intensity of industrial growth of that country (Bastian et al., 2019; Kniivila, n.d). The emergence of new enterprises is the main source of a healthy and growing industrial ecosystem. They represent 99% of businesses in developing countries and account for two-thirds of employment creation (Secretary-General and UNCTAD, 2022). Enterprises hence create employment, drive inclusive growth, promote innovation, and improve socio cultural conditions along with addressing sustainable development goals- No poverty(SDG-1), Industry, innovation and infrastructure(SDG-9), Reduce inequality(SDG-10)of the UN’s 2030 agenda (Forbes, 2022; Secretary-General and UNCTAD, 2022). Their innovative outputs in the form of goods and services, address local as well as global requirements of the customer market and bring them on the path of sustainability (Szopik-Depczynska et al.,2018; Rivera et al.,2020). The entrepreneurs have a long vision of success, engaging their primary activities with No poverty (SDG-1), Zero hunger(SDG-2), Gender equality(SDGs-5), Decent work and economic growth(SDG-8), Industry, innovation and infrastructure(SDG-9), Reduce inequality(SDG-10), Responsible consumption and production(SDG-12), Climate action(SDG-13), Partnership for goals(SDG-17) and addressing challenges of society and the environment in return for optimal economic profit (Alagpuria,2021; Lammers et al.,2022; Secretary-General and UNCTAD,2022; Vig,2021; Del-Aguila Arcentales et al.,2022; Sadiq et al.,2022).

About Mendel

Born in what is now the Czeck Republic.

Grew up in an agricultural environment.

Became a priest-teacher at a local monastery.

Took courses in botany, physics, and mathematics at the University of Vienna.

Gregor Mendel was the first person to comprehend some of the most basic principles of genetics. He reached these understandings in the mid-nineteenth century; working in what is now the Czech Republic and using as his experimental subjects a species of garden pea, Pisum sativum..

Carried out “hybridization” experiments with the common garden pea.

Mendel’s hypotheses became the laws of inheritance in modern genetics.

Mendel’s work re-discovered by Correns, DeVries, and Tschermak in 1900. Period of modern “Mendelian” genetics begin.

Reproductive development determines flowering, pollination, fruit set, fruit growth, maturation, and ultimately horticultural productivity. This chapter introduces the physiological processes controlling flowering and reproductive development and explains the influence of environmental factors and plant hormones. Major plant growth regulators such as auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene, and abscisic acid are considered in relation to horticultural applications. PGRs can influence rooting, flowering, fruit set, fruit size, thinning, ripening, dormancy, and senescence when used appropriately. The chapter emphasizes crop-specific concentration, timing, method of application, and environmental conditions, highlighting the importance of responsible PGR use for improving yield, quality, and marketability.

1.    Heat transfer by conduction is given by

(a) Boyle’s law

(b) Stefan’s law

(c) Fourier’s law

(d) Charles’ law

2.    Heat flow per hour is proportional to change in

(a) Area

(b) Vapour pressure

(c) Mass

(d) Temperature