eChapters

Maintenance

When an animal is being fed for growth, fattening, milk secretion or other productive function, a considerable part of its feed is utilized for supporting body processes which are vital, irrespective of new tissue or product is being formed. This demand for feed is referred to as the “Maintenance requirement”; because it includes the amount needed to keep intact the tissues of animal which is not growing, working or yielding any product. There would be tissue break down with the accompanying loss in weight, leading to undesirable consequences, provided such need for feed is not met.

The fasting catabolism

The fasting animal doing no external work and not producing in any way is still carrying on a variety of internal physiological processes, which are absolutely vital for life. Obviouslythe nutrients required to support theseinternal activities must come from the break down of body tissue itself. This destruction of body tissue is termed as the “Fasting catabolism” and this can be measured in terms of the waste products discarded through the various paths of excretion.

Energy catabolism of fasting

The energy expended in the fasting animal is converted into heat, which can be measured in direct or indirect calorimeter. For measuring fasting catabolism at its minimumvalue, it becomes imperative to eliminate all the influences leading to increase heat production above the minimum expenditure compatible with the maintenance of life in so far as possible. Such a minimum value is called “Basal-metabolism” or BMR.Theconditions essential fora true minimumvalue of fasting catabolism can most nearly be attained in human being are specified as following :

1. Lecithin is an example of
   1. Carbohydrates
   2. Hormones
   3. Vitamins
   4. Phospholipids
2. Which of the following acts as storehouse of energy in body?
   1. Hormone
   2. Vitamins
   3. Fats
   4. All of these

A. Answer the following questions

1.    What is omega carbon atom?

Ans: The methyl carbon atom at the distal end of the fatty acid chain is called omega carbon atom

2.    Why mammals can not synthesize essential fatty acid?

Ans: Because of their inability to introduce double bond between the 9th carbon atom and the terminal methyl group of the fatty acid chain.

3.    What is acid value?

Ans: It is defined as the number of milligram of KOH required to neutralize the free organic acids in 1 gm of fat.

4.    What is saponification number?

Ans: It is defined as the number of milligrams of KOH required to neutralize the free fatty acid and saponify the esterified fatty acids in 1 gm of fat.

5.    What is iodine number?

23.1 Introduction
Various products can also be produced by emulsions that contain fat globules. For instance, cream is produced when milk contains concentrated fat. This cream can be further processed to produce butter, ghee, and butteroil. “Milk fat, ghee, butter oil, anhydrous milk fat, and anhydrous butter oil are fatty products that are exclusively derived from milk or products obtained from milk, or both, through processes that result in the almost complete removal of water and milk solids, not fat.” The method of manufacturing (FSSAI standards) has notably influenced the flavour and physical structure of ghee.

23.2 Types of Fat Rich Dairy Products
23.2.1 Cream or Malayi
“Cream is a yellowish component of milk that naturally rises to the surface when milk is allowed to stand. It is rich in fat globules.” Cream is mechanically separated in the dairy industry. The size of the fat globules is diminished as a result of homogenisation of cream, which renders the product less suitable for whipping.
Cream can be defined as
1. That portion of milk, which is rich in milk fat
2. That portion of milk into which has been gathered and which contains large portion of milk fat
3. When milk fat is concentrated into a fraction of the original milk that portion is called cream.

Assay of Carotene, Tocopherol and Plant Pigments (Method of Astrup et al., 1971). Agricultural University of NORWAY, ÅS-NLH, NORWAY

Introduction

A method which assays the carotene together with chlorophyll a and b and xanthophyll was given by worker (1957, 1958) and this was a successful approach towards a useful routine procedure. Worker’s way of extraction is based on the use of aqueous acetone a technique which was studied by Davidson (1954). The separation is accomplished on an alumina column. Worker (1958) has used a double successive chromatography, once on magnesia and again on alumina, to obtain its separation from the other lipid components. The method developed by Astrup et al. (1971) permits simultaneous assay of tocopherol, carotene and plant pigments using alumina column.

Fat-rich dairy products such as cream, makhan, butter, butter oil and ghee have played a pivotal role in growth and development of dairy industry in India as well as abroad from the time immemorial. The reference of makhan and ghee has been found in old Indian scriptures. Makhan was popularized by Lord Krishna about 5000 years before. In the traditional Indian dietary regimen, milk fat in the form of malai (cream), makhan (freshly churned butter) contributes significantly towards nourishment of people of almost all ages.

Indian dairy industry, over the years, has been converting surplus milk for the manufacture of fat-rich dairy products, especially ghee and butter with skimmilk as a byproduct because of technological and economic reasons. More than one-third of the total milk production is being utilized for the production of ghee and butter wherein milk lipids, the most expensive constituents of milk are conserved and preserved. Milk lipids play many diverse roles, some of which are essential for human health. Many of the desirable flavour and textural attributes of dairy products are due to their lipid components, consequently, butterfat has, traditionally, been highly valued. Significance of fat can also be realized from the fact that the consumer’s perception of food quality is largely based on the perceivable rich taste. Unfortunately, milk lipids are subject to chemical and enzymatic alterations which can cause flavour defects referred to as oxidative and hydrolytic rancidity, respectively. The storage stability of high-fat products is strongly influenced by these changes.

9.1 Introduction

Nanoparticles (NPs) are particulate matter with at least one dimension less than 100 nm (Christian et al., 2008). Although NPs are naturally present in the environment, manufactured NPs may have distinctive surface properties and chemistry in comparison with natural NPs (Handy et al., 2008). Manufactured NPs have a large area-to-volume ratio and size-dependent properties, which impart novel properties and behaviors that make them suitable for nanotechnology applications (Auffan et al., 2009). Range of applications for NPs has brought about a rapid development of the nanotechnology industry.

When a herbicide is applied to the soil, it is subjected to various interactions with soil and surrounding environment which ultimately determines its persistence. Dissipation of these compounds from soil system is by three main processes viz., physical (volatilization, leaching and runoff), chemical (photochemical decomposition, adsorption by organic and inorganic colloids and chemical decomposition) and biological (microbial decomposition and plant uptake) 

1. Physical Processes

a) Volatilisation

Lipids are a diverse group of chemical molecules. They are generally insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Lipids include long-chain hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, fatty acids, and their derivatives, especially, glycerides, phospholipids, glycolipids and sulfolipids. Other compounds like sterols, fatty acid esters of sterols, vitamins A, D, E, and K, carotenoids, and other poly-isoprenoids also are part of the lipids. Oils and fats are mainly triglycerides and neutral molecules. Those in the liquid state at ambient temperatures are called oils while those in the solid state are called fats. Lipids and lipid components have varied uses in the food and non food sectors. Vegetable and animal matter contain a variety of these constituents in different proportions. It is neccessry to evaluate the composition and quality of these constituents from the point of view of their utility.

Procedure: Measurement of smoke point of given oils: Heat the given oils in a deep frying pan till fumes come out from oil. Record the temperature when the fumes come out and noted it as a ‘smoke point’. Cool the oil by keeping oil pan at room temperature. After cooling repeat the heating of same oils 2nd and 3rd time to measure the smoke point and record the observations

Fats are obtained from both animal and vegetable sources. The principal animal fats are cream, butter, egg yolk, the fat of beef, mutton, pork, bone marrow, chicken fat, and codliver oil. Vegetable fats are those derived from fruits and seeds of plant, as olive oil, cottonsed oil, corn oil, peanut oil, soyabean oil and nut oils.

COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FATS

Fats and oils, the most concentrated of fuel foods, were the first of the organic compounds or foods to have their composition determined. They are made up of same three elements which go to produce the carbohydrates, but the oxygen is less in proportion to the carbon. This explains the fact that fat yields more energy per gram than carbohydrates do.

Lipids are a class of compounds that are defined by how they are isolated, rather than by their composition. Lipids are molecules that can be extracted from plants and animals by low polarity solvents such as ether, chloroform, or even acetone. They are not appreciably soluble in water. Fats and the fatty acids from which they are made belong to this group as do oils, waxes and steroids. Hydrolyzable lipids are those that contain a functional group that will react with water. The functional group is usually an ester and the list of compounds includes neutral fats, waxes, phospholipids, and glycolipids. Non- hydrolyzable lipids lack such functional groups and include steroids and fat-soluble vitamins (e.g. A, D, E, and K).

Fats and oils are composed of triacylglycerols. These are compounds prepared by the union of glycerol (1,2, 3-tri- hydroxypropane) and 3 fatty acids to form a triester. Fats and oils belong to a group of biological substances called lipids. Lipids are biological chemicals that do not dissolve in water. They serve a variety of functions in organisms, such as regulatory messengers (hormones), structural components of membranes, and as energy storehouses. Fats and oils generally function in the latter capacity. Fats differ from oils only in that they are solid at room temperature, while oils are liquid. Fats and oils share a common molecular structure. The fats and oils contain three ester functional groups. Fats and oils are esters of the tri- alcohol, glycerol (or glycerine). Therefore, fats and oils are commonly called triglycerides, although a more accurate name is triacylglycerols. Triglyceride molecules contain mostly carbon and hydrogen atoms, with only six oxygen atoms per molecule. This means that fats and oils are highly reduced (un-oxidized). Oils are particularly common in seeds, where the stored energy helps seedlings during germination, until they can exploit solar energy through photosynthesis. Fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atoms, from 4 to 36, bonded in an unbranched chain. Most of the bonds between carbon atoms are single bonds. If all of these bonds are single bonds, the fatty acid is said to be saturated, because the number of atoms attached to each carbon atom is the maximum of four. If some of the bonds between carbon atoms are double bonds, then the fatty acid is unsaturated. When there is only one double bond, it is usually between the 9th and 10th carbon atom in the chain, where the carbon atom attached to the oxygen atoms is counted as the first carbon atom. If there is a second double bond, it usually occurs between the 12th and 13th carbon atoms, while a third is usually between the 15th and 16th.

Fats are rich sources of energy. Fats provide 2.25 times more available enrgy than carbohydrates. Fats also increase the palatability and reduce the dustiness of feed. Fats and fatty acids decrease the heat increment in the body. Fatty acids are also involved in number of physiological functions of the body. Recently, considerable interest has been shown on studies pertaining to dietary supplementation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in animal feed and their role in animal health and production.

Fatty liver, also known as hepatic lipidosis is a metabolic disorder commonly seen in various animal species. It occurs due to excessive accumulation of fat (lipids) in liver cells (hepatocytes), leading to impaired liver function. This condition is particularly prevalent in dairy cattle, poultry, cats, and occasionally in dogs and other species. Fatty liver can significantly impact health, productivity, and overall well-being. Nutritional management plays a crucial role in both preventing and treating this condition. Fatty liver occurs when the liver’s ability to metabolize and export fat is overwhelmed, leading to fat accumulation. This can happen due to various factors, including: Imbalance in energy metabolism Excess energy intake or inadequate utilization of energy during critical periods (e.g., early lactation in dairy cows) results in fat mobilization to the liver.
Obesity
Overweight animals are more prone to developing fatty liver due to an increased baseline fat deposit.
Nutritional deficiencies
Lack of essential nutrients like choline, methionine, and B vitamins can impair lipid metabolism. 

India’s vast geographical expanse and diverse climatic conditions have led to the development of distinct agro-climatic zones. These zones, as defined by the Planning Commission and ICAR, provide a scientific basis for selecting location-specific farming systems that ensure sustainable productivity, livelihood security, and efficient resource use. The feasibility of farming systems in these zones depends on factors such as rainfall, temperature, soil type, water availability, cropping intensity, and socio-economic conditions. The feasibility of different farming systems significantly depends on the specific agro-climatic zone, which encompasses factors such as temperature, rainfall, soil type, and elevation. India’s vast and varied geography is divided into 15 agro-climatic zones by the Planning Commission. Each zone has specific soil types, climatic conditions, topography, and resource availability. These factors influence the most feasible and sustainable farming systems. Below is a detailed description of suitable farming systems for each zone.
1. Western Himalayan Region (Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand)
• Climate: Cold temperate to alpine.
• Feasible Farming Systems:
º Horticulture-based (apple, pear, walnut)
º Agri-horti-pastoral (wheat/barley + fruits + sheep/goat)
º Apiculture and sericulture
• Justification: Hilly terrain and climate favor fruits and small livestock.

Introduction India is a country of festivals and celebrations. Indian sweets enjoy a legendary reputation across the world. India is home to a number of delicious sweets that play a vital role in every Indian celebration. While gulab jamuns, rasgullas and kaju katlis may be the most popular sweets in the country (Pal Sanchari, 2016). Functions and events in India are celebrated with intake of sweets. Also, it is customary to sweeten the mouth in social gathering like marriage, birthday, poojas, etc. (Gulati and Misra, 2014). In the past few years, guidelines are formulated based on analyses of all published scientific studies on the consumption of sugars. In view of the rising prevalence of overweight, obesity and related disorders globally, in 2002, the WHO recommended that sugar should be less than 10 percent of daily calories. The consensus dietary guidelines for Indians in 2011 recommend less than 10% of total calories from free sugars per day. In May 2014, the expert panel of WHO recently recommended decreasing sugar intake to 5% of total calorie intake to combat obesity. A high intake of added sugars is a primary risk factor for diabetes. It is these added sugars in sweets that makes them palatable, but also does the physical damage. (Willet Brian, 2011). People have developed taste towards food in which fat and sugar contents are high.

There are several types of features and structures of the gardens. The design, material and placement varies from one type of garden to others. However, there are some basic requirements in every type of gardens. Common features and structures of the gardens are described hereunder for providing some basic information.

Boundary

Material and construction of the outer boundary is to be considered depending upon the size and type of garden. Protection, permanency and cost of construction are the main factors. It should be well designed and an architectural show piece co-relating with type and design of the garden. Ornamental creepers are planted along the boundary wall and trained over the same for further beautification purpose.

Healthcare organizations require collaborative learning methods that protect sensitive patient information. This chapter introduces federated learning as a framework for training models across decentralized institutions without transferring raw clinical data. Horizontal, vertical and hybrid federated architectures are examined alongside communication protocols, threat models and security requirements. Privacy-enhancing methods—including differential privacy, secure aggregation, cryptographic techniques and trusted execution environments—are discussed. Applications in medical imaging, electronic health-record analysis, wearable devices and remote patient monitoring demonstrate the framework’s practical value. The chapter also evaluates accuracy, privacy, communication cost, scalability and robustness while addressing data heterogeneity, fairness, explainability, legal compliance and ethical challenges in collaborative healthcare analytics.

A. Answer the following?

1.    How antibiotic increases nutrient absorption from the gut?

Ans: In antibiotic fed animals, the intestine becomes thinner and healthier, thus they helps in more absorption of nutrient.

2.    What is probiotic?

Ans: Probioticcan be defined asthe live microbial food supplement that beneficially affects the host animal by improving the intestinalmicrobial balance.

3.    What is prebiotic?

Ans: These are the compound other than dietary nutrients that modifythe balance of microbial populationbypromoting the growth of beneficial bacteria and thereby maintain healthier intestinal environments.

4.    What is eubiotics?

Ans: Eubiotics are defined as non-antibiotic products maintaining the desiredbalance of good bacteriaand pathogens or eubiosis in the digestive tract. e.g. direct acting gut flora modulator (organic acid, essential oil), probiotics, prebiotics, immune modulator.

5.    What is supplement?

Feed processing includes all operations necessary to achieve the maximum potential of nutritional value of a feed stuff. The process involves changing ingredients in such a manner as to maximize their natural value and the net returns from their use. Feed processing may be accompanied by Physical, Chemical, Thermal, Bacterial or other changes of a feed ingredient before it is fed. The primary reasons for processing feeds are to make changes in the moisture content, density of feed, particle size, palatability; or to make more profit, to improve nutrient availability, keeping quality (shelf – life); or to reduce storage – transportation space, cost, moulds, Salmonella and other harmful substances. Feed mill equipment: The milling industry has been concerned with “Grinding” – a process of particle size reduction. During
earlier times, the same equipment was used Food for humans to produce Food for livestock because, the process was basically ‘grinding’ of whole grains. As milling developed into the “Modern Flour Industry”, the milling process was extended to include:

The proper supply of feed and fodder is a requirement for the growth and development of the animals. Over the past few decades, there has been a considerable growth in milk production, with India now producing the most milk in the world (187.7 million tones in 2018–19). The main causes of India’s low milk yield are extrinsic (poor nutrition/feed management) as well as intrinsic (low genetic potential).

Current status of feed and fodder availability in India Globally India ranks 1st in terms of total livestock (535.78 million) and buffalo population in the world (109.85 million), 2nd in cattle (192.49 million), goat (148.88 million) and 3rd in sheep population. So, the availability of adequate quantity and quality feed and fodder resources for livestock is essential for improving livestock productivity. Grazing lands and fodder cultivation areas are gradually dwindling either due to degradation or restriction for livestock grazing. Total area under fodder cultivation is around 8.4 mha (5.23%) which is almost static for the past two decades. Even though feed and fodder availability has improved in the last decade still gap exists with demand and availability of fodder during lean periods and abnormal weather conditions like droughts/floods. At present, India faces a net deficit of 35.6% green fodder (GF), 10.95% dry crop residues and 44% concentrate feeds. In India, open forest cover is around 29 million hectares (mha), which can be further utilized for growing fodder trees without affecting standing trees, mostly as an under- storey on the partially shaded ground Area under fodder production Sorghum (2.6 M ha) and Egyptian clover (1.9 M ha) account for roughly 54% of the total cultivated fodder area in the kharif and

1. Introduction
Feed formulation for carnivorous fish species is a pivotal aspect of aquaculture that significantly impacts growth performance, health, and the sustainability of production systems. As the global demand for seafood continues to rise, driven by population growth and changing dietary preferences, optimizing feed formulations becomes increasingly essential for aquaculture operators. Efficient feed formulations are crucial not only for enhancing fish growth rates and feed conversion efficiency but also for ensuring the economic viability of fish farming operations.
Carnivorous fish species, such as salmon, trout, tilapia, and catfish, have specific nutritional requirements that must be met to achieve optimal performance. These requirements typically include high-quality protein sources, essential fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals. The formulation of diets that adequately supply these nutrients while minimizing costs is a complex challenge that aquaculture practitioners face. Traditional feed ingredients, including fishmeal and fish oil, are often expensive and subject to supply fluctuations, prompting a need for innovative alternatives that can provide similar nutritional profiles at a lower cost.
This chapter delves into the intricacies of feed formulation for carnivorous fish species. It begins by outlining the nutritional requirements specific to these fish, emphasizing the importance of protein and fatty acid sources. The chapter then discusses various feed ingredients, both traditional and alternative, that can be used to formulate cost-effective diets without compromising fish health and performance. Additionally, it addresses the challenges associated with formulating diets for carnivorous species, including ingredient variability, palatability, and the potential for anti-nutritional factors.

The nutritional value and overall effectiveness of fish feed are heavily influenced by the selection and proportion of ingredients and additives included in its formulation. Ingredients provide the fundamental nutrients—proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals—while additives are used to improve digestion, flavor, immune support, and feed stability. A sound knowledge of these components is essential for developing economical and nutritionally balanced feeds tailored to different fish species and farming systems. Proteins are the primary building blocks in fish feed, necessary for muscle development, enzymatic functions, and growth. Fishmeal has long been regarded as the most effective protein source due to its excellent amino acid composition and digestibility. However, concerns around cost and sustainability have encouraged the use of plant-based alternatives such as soybean meal, groundnut cake, mustard oil cake, cottonseed meal, and insect-derived

In natural farming-based aquaculture, feed management emphasizes sustainable practices that utilize naturally occurring food sources along with lowcost supplements. This method reduces dependency on commercial feeds and chemical inputs, aligning with eco-friendly farming principles and supporting aquatic biodiversity. Fish raised in natural farming systems primarily feed on natural organisms such as plankton, algae, and detritus. These develop in ponds fertilized with organic inputs like cow dung and compost, which help create a self-sustaining aquatic ecosystem. Fish thrive by feeding through the natural food chain, minimizing the need for external inputs.
Supplementary feeding includes locally sourced plant materials such as azolla, duckweed, water hyacinth, and aquatic weeds that are rich in nutrients. Farmers also use kitchen waste, crop residues, and agricultural byproducts like rice bran and wheat bran to enhance nutritional value.
Fermented feed mixtures—made using bran, cow urine, and microbial solutions—are applied to improve digestion and nutrient uptake. These probiotic feeds support fish health and improve immunity without resorting to synthetic additives. Regular pond maintenance, including partial water renewal and organic fertilization, supports the continuous generation of natural feed organisms. This ensures a balanced and productive environment for fish rearing.
Adopting such natural feed strategies leads to healthier fish, reduced environmental impact, and lower input costs. It also complements integrated farming systems, contributing to farm sustainability and diversified income opportunities.

Goats and sheep play a vital role in natural farming systems due to their adaptability, efficient utilization of feed, and importance in sustaining rural livelihoods. Proper feed management is key to ensuring their health, reproductive success, and overall productivity, all while reducing reliance on external inputs. In natural farming, the diet of goats and sheep mainly consists of locally available grasses, shrubs, tree foliage, crop residues, and forage legumes. Fodder trees such as subabul, moringa, ber, and neem serve as valuable sources of protein and micronutrients. To address seasonal shortages, farmers establish fodder reserves and adopt agroforestry systems that combine tree planting with crop cultivation.
Goats, being browsers, thrive on a wide variety of vegetation including tough shrubs and woody plants, many of which contain medicinal secondary compounds. Sheep, on the other hand, prefer grazing on grasses and herbs, making careful pasture management essential to prevent nutrient deficiencies.
Locally sourced feed supplements like oilseed cakes, pulses, and leftover kitchen food help improve protein and energy intake. Mineral blocks enriched with salt, calcium, phosphorus, and trace minerals aid in proper skeletal development and reproductive health.

Feed plays a vital role not only in growth but it also enhances the market value of ornamental fish. In natural waters, fish has access to a variety of natural food items, but their overall wellbeing depends upon the availability of their favorite food. However, in a confined system, nutritionally balanced supplementary feed is indispensable due to limitation on availability of natural live fish food organisms. In general, ornamental fish are fed with a variety of commercially available pelleted feeds, imported from countries like Singapore, Hong Kong, Korea and Thailand etc. Although they are very popular among ornamental fish hobbyists, the high cost of these feeds is not economical for commercial-scale application at farmer’s level. Further, in contrast to food fish in a pond, feeding ornamental fish in smaller culture units need high precision. Therefore, it is essential for an ornamental fish producer to possess technical know-how regarding nutritional requirements and feeding behaviour of different species in order to formulate farm-made feeds by using locally available low- cost ingredients.

Formulation of low cost and nutritionally balanced supplementary feed, using locally available ingredients, is the key to the success of ornamental fish culture in India. To reduce the cost of feed and make the ornamental fish production venture more profitable, the feed can be prepared at farm by using cost-effective and locally available quality ingredients (plant/animal-based).

Identification and selection of the feed ingredients are essential and it should be according to the fish species to be cultured. A number of feed ingredients may be locally available which can be used for feed formulation. Fish culturists have to identify and choose the best ingredients, depending upon its easy availability, nutrient status and cost, keeping in mind the nutritional requirement of ornamental fish (size, feeding habits, etc.) to be cultured.

We visited the CPF (Thailand Public Company limited) in Samutsakorn on 12/ 10/23 at 1:30 pm. The purpose of the visit was to know about the feed ingredients and production process.

1) Overview

Product like shrimp feed and fish feed are prepared by the company. Company was spread in 61 Rai( 24 acre) area. 400 employees are working in the company.Working hours is 3 shift / day and working days – 6 days / week.Shrimp feed unit have the capacity of 13,000 T/M and actual production was 7000 T/M. 8 line pellet machine was used for this purpose. Fish and frog feed unit have capacity of 11,000 T/M and actual production 7000 T/M. 6 line extruder machine was used.

Feed processing is an essential phase in aquafeed production that converts raw ingredients into uniform, digestible, and nutritionally appropriate feed for various aquatic species. Effective processing enhances digestibility, palatability, shelf life, and ensures consistency in size, moisture, density (floating or sinking), and texture. With growing demand for quality and cost-effective fish feed, technological advancements have refined various processing methods. The typical feed processing sequence includes grinding, mixing, conditioning, pelleting or extrusion, cooling, drying, and coating, each crucial to the final product’s quality: • Grinding: This initial step reduces ingredients like grains, oil cakes, and fishmeal to fine particles. Finer grinds boost nutrient availability and improve blending. Equipment like hammer mills or pulverizers is used, with particle size tailored to species and growth stage (e.g., finer for fry, coarser for growout). • Mixing: Uniform nutrient distribution is achieved through proper mixing using vertical or horizontal

In natural farming systems, maintaining high-quality livestock feed is essential for safeguarding animal health, sustaining productivity, and ensuring food safety. Since these systems prioritize the use of non-chemical, farm-sourced inputs, the responsibility for ensuring feed quality lies directly with the farmer rather than industrial monitoring systems. High-quality feed should be fresh, nutritionally adequate, contaminant-free, and palatable to animals. A visual inspection is typically the first method of assessment—looking for signs like mold, discoloration, unusual odors, or insect presence. Green fodder should retain its vibrant color and characteristic smell, while dry fodder and grains must be crisp,clean, and free from fungal growth. Poor-quality or improperly stored feed can compromise animal health, leading to digestive problems or weakened immunity.
In natural feed management, monitoring animal responses offers crucial insights into feed effectiveness. Changes in appetite, body weight, milk output, behavior, or stool consistency often reflect the nutritional adequacy of the feed. Healthy signs such as glossy coats, bright eyes, and alertness signal good nutrition, while reduced performance or dull appearance may suggest deficiencies. Simple on-farm tests—such as floating grains in water or checking silage by smell—can serve as practical, low-cost quality checks in the absence of lab facilities.

Introduction

The Indian poultry industry has emerged as the most dynamic and fastest expanding segment in animal husbandry sector with an annual growth rate of 23% in broiler chickens and 5% in egg production. The production performance of birds in terms of meat and egg has also improved significantly; however, the sector has crippled many times due to various reasons among which the important ones were rising feed cost, non-availability og feed ingredients, fluctuating market price of produce (eggs and broilers) and emergence of new or re-emerging of existing diseases. In future, poultry industry may face more such challenges.

When we talk about importance of feed technology in relation to animal productivity, feed represents the major cost in animal production as follows -
Feed processing includes all operations necessary to achieve the maximum potential of nutritional value of a feed stuff. The process involves changing ingredients in such a manner as to maximize their natural value and the net returns from their use. Feed processing may be accomplished by Physical, Chemical, Thermal, Bacterial or other changes of a feed ingredient before it is fed. The primary reasons for processing feeds are to make changes in the moisture content, density of feed, particle size, palatability; or to make more profit, to improve nutrient availability, keeping quality; or to reduce storage -transportation space, cost, moulds, salmonella and other harmful substances. Detoxification of undesirable components because some feeds may contain toxic substances, theexcess consumption of whichmaycausedecreased nutritive value of the feeds or may injure some vital organs or even cause death. Some natural inhibitors in feedstuffs are as following :

Definition

• If a communication source decodes the message that he encodes, if the message is put back to his system, we have a feedback - Berlo (1960)

• Feedback is defined as the action reaction interdependence in communication.

• The return to the input of a part of the output is the feedback.

• Feedback is the reaction on the part of the receiver to a sender's communication.

Feedback or response of the audience is the ultimate objective of any communication process or function. Response of an audience to message received may be in the form of some kind of physical or mental action. Until the desired action results, extension communication does not achieve its most essential objectives. The response of the audience (whether in the form of action or reaction) can be used by a communicator as a check of his own effectiveness and a guide to his own future action. When a source receives feedback, that is rewarding, he continues to produce the same kind of message. When he gets non-rewarding feedback, he eventually will change his message. Schramn (1955) points out that each person in the communication process is both an encoder and decoder. He receive and transmits. However, a person will decode a message and interpret it in accordance with his own experience.• Feedback means carrying out significant responses of the audience back to the communicator.

7.1 Introduction

The current atmospheric CO₂ concentration is the highest during last 650,000 to 800,000 years (Luthi et al., 2008), and also probably in the last 20 million years (Pearson and Palmer, 2000). Since last two decades, it is increasing at a rate of about 2 ppm/yr with the current concentration of 389 ppm in 2010 (WMO, 2011). The current trend of energy use based on fossil fuel consumption may raise it to 900 - 1100 ppmby the end of 21^st century (Kiehl, 2011).

In the rabbit production industry, providing a healthy diet and adequate amount of food every day is crucial for success. Rabbits can only survive and thrive on a diet of forage, so it is important to carefully consider their nutritional needs when planning their feeding regimen.

Some rabbit producers choose to provide basic grains in addition to forages in order to increase the potential productivity of their herd. These grains can be sourced from one's own farm or purchased commercially as concentrated feeds. The type of feed given to rabbits will greatly impact the management of the herd, such as how frequently they need to be rebred.

A. Answer the following questions

1.    WhyvitaminAdeficiencyis far common in captive carnivores than free rangingwildlife?

Ans: Because they are fed exclusively on carcass meat without liver, cod liver oil or synthetic sources of vitamin A and moreover, thay can not convert ?-carotene to vitamin A.

2.    Why weekly off day feeding is practiced in tiger in all Indian zoos?

Ans: This ispracticed tostimulatetheintermittentfeedingbehavior of tiger in wild condition.

3.    Why metabolic bone diseases are very common in captive carnivores?

And: As the carcass meat provided in captivecondition is deficient in Ca and ratio of Ca: P (1:20) is very highly imbalanced.

4.    Write the extreme specializations in GItract seen in vampire bats?

Ans: Like blood sucking parasites, their GI tract is reduced to a tube since it feeds only on blood.

Dietary fat, which is not degraded in upper part of digestive tract (rumen) of animal, but gets digested in lower alimentary tract is known as bypass fat. Rumen protected fat is another name for this bypass fat. Immediately following calving, dairy animals lose a significant amount of energy through milk, although their feed intake is decreased. Animals continue to have negative energy balances as a result.

For the purpose of passing into the lower gastrointestinal tract and supplying the cow with vital amino acids, dairy bypass protein (UDP – undegraded protein) is a type of animal or plant-based protein that resists breakdown in the rumen. More metabolizable protein is made available by avoiding the rumen, assisting the cow in meeting her needs for amino acids for milk production and its constituent parts.

1. Introduction
Reproduction is one of the most critical processes in the life cycle of fish, directly influencing population sustainability, species survival, and aquaculture productivity. Successful reproduction hinges on several interconnected factors, including environmental conditions (such as water quality, temperature, and photoperiod), genetic predisposition, physiological health, and, most importantly, nutrition. Among these, nutrition has a profound and direct influence on reproductive performance in both wild and cultured fish populations.
In aquaculture, the reproductive success of broodstock—mature fish that produce offspring—is paramount to the production of high-quality fry (young fish) and larvae, which in turn affects the overall yield and profitability of fish farms. Ensuring that broodstock are provided with an optimal diet tailored to their reproductive needs can significantly enhance fecundity (the number of eggs produced), fertilization rates, and the viability of offspring. Proper nutrition not only contributes to better gamete (egg and sperm) quality but also plays a vital role in boosting the health, vitality, and resilience of both broodstock and their progeny.
Nutritional deficiencies or imbalances during the reproductive phase can lead to a variety of problems, such as reduced spawning frequency, poor egg and sperm quality, low hatching rates, and poor larval survival. Conversely, well-nourished broodstock with access to essential nutrients are more likely to produce high-quality eggs and sperm that result in healthier, more viable offspring.

Management of zoo and exotic animals in zoos are carried out in different ways. In the management of zoo, various cadres of personnel get employed and often, a team-approach is highly required and however, veterinarian is one of the important cadres in the zoo related personnel and veterinary interventions are highly required for management of feeding, housing, breeding and health of various species of wild fauna belonging to multiple taxonomical groups.

Large parts of the country perennially reel under recurring drought. Over 68% of India is vulnerable to drought. The ‘chronically drought-prone areas’ – around 33%, receive less than 750 mm of rainfall, while 35%, classified as ‘drought-prone’ receive rainfall of 750-1,125 mm. The drought-prone areas of the country are confined to peninsular and western India – primarily arid, semi-arid and sub-humid regions. Approximately 218.1 thousand square kilometers of land in India under sub-tropical semi-arid and arid conditions are spread over the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh (Anonymous, 1974). Agriculture is predominantly rainfed and the region is drought-prone. Less than 23% of land is irrigated. Forest cover is <5% and waste and fallow areas occupy 42% of the land.

8.1. Introduction

Providing appropriate nutrition is an elementary step in dairy animal production. Improper nutrition prevents cattle to express full genetic potential for milk production and reproductive efficiency. Nutrition helps in maintaining good health condition of the animal.

Therefore, one should know the basic digestive physiology, various types of nutrients and their requirements in different categories of animals present in a dairy herd. As feed cost contributes principal expenditure of a dairy farm, balanced ration should be prepared in a cost effective manner. Proper understanding of feeds and rations also help to explore alternative feeds and supplements without hampering the health as well as productivity of the animals. Effective dairy farming requires converting feed into milk which worth more than the total cost of production (mostly contributed by feed cost).

A. Answer the following questions

1.    What is balanced ration?

Ans: According to Morrison (1956), a balanced ration is one that furnishes nutrients in such proportions and amounts that it will properlynourisha givenanimalfor 24hours.The required nutrients must be contained in the DM provided during the 24 hrs period otherwise the ration can not be considered as balanced.

2.    What is ration?

Ans: A ration is the feed allowed for a givenanimal duringthe day of 24 hours.

3.    What is effective rumen degradable protein? (ERDP)

Ans: It has been defined as a measure of the total nitrogen supply that is actually captured and utilized by the rumen microbes for growth and synthetic purpose.

4.    How heat treatment causes protein protection?

Ans Heating causes denaturation of protein and this may be beneficial because of reduced ruminal degradation partly by blocking reactive sites for ruminal proteolytic enzymes and partly byreducingprotein solubility.

In the cases of drought and flood when the feed resources made unavailable, creates the problem of animals feeding. In those cases unconventional methods and materials will have to be used to fulfil the hunger and nutrient requirements of animals to sustain them. 

Traditional methods of feeding
    1.    Use of by-products of commercial crops such as oil seed crops, grams etc. as well as drought resistant vegetation in combination with NPN source and molasses (as source of energy) for meeting the immediate nutritional requirements.

    2.     Certain varieties of tree leaves and extractions of inedible oil seeds can be used to meet the essential requirements of intact protein in ruminants. This proved to be successful during draught in many parts of India.
 
    3.    Large scale feeding of bagasse and molasses in combination with urea and mineral supplements may be adopted without any toxic effects. Some of the daily ration schedule that has been successfully tried is given below:

Digestive System and Digestion in Chicken

Studies on structure and functions of digestive system of chicken play important role for their nutrition and feeding. Functions of each part are given below (Fig 35):

Mouth: Birds feed through the beak. The horny upper and lower mandibles form the beak. Lips, teeth, cheek and soft palate are absent. The dagger-like tongue helps to force the feed into the esophagus. Chicken has 24 taste buds with high sense of taste. Absence of teeth makes the particle size of the feed important.

Esophagus (Gullet): It is made of loose fibrous tissue and serves as a tube to pass the food from mouth to crop. This is relatively long because of the long neck of the fowl.

Crop: (Ingluvius): It is a pouch like structure of esophagus to store, moisten and soften the food. It gives information about the feeding habits of the fowl.

Proventriculus (Glandular stomach or True stomach): It is an enlarged glandular ovoid structure of the esophagus connected to gizzard. It secretes pepsin and Hydrochloric acid.

Gizzard (Muscular stomach): Disc shaped muscular organ with two pairs of strong thick muscles and lined internally with a thick horny epithelial covering called the Koilin layer. Coarse materials are ground well by its powerful contractions with the support of the grit that birds consume.

India is one of the top ten countries most affected by disasters, as defined by the Disaster Management Act of 2005. Natural disasters, such as floods, droughts, and earthquakes, often lead to food and water shortages. Man-made disasters, like industrial accidents and pollution, can further worsen conditions for animals. Ensuring animal welfare during disasters is essential for family survival, as livestock provide food security. Developing a comprehensive animal care plan is vital to safeguard animals during and after natural disasters.
During natural disasters, the primary objective should be to prevent animals from starving by diverting feed from lactating animals whenever possible. Implementing restricted feeding is crucial, even if it results in weight loss and reduced milk yield in lactating animals. Utilizing various measures such as conserved fodders, cost-effective hydroponic systems, unconventional feed resources, and nutrient blocks can help prevent livestock mortality and morbidity during emergencies.
Natural calamities often lead to significant livestock losses, highlighting the importance of feed security for animals during and after disasters. Developing feeding strategies to sustain animals in the face of natural calamities is crucial.
Feeding strategies during feed shortages aim to maintain animals at a minimum body weight for survival, prioritize feeding productive stock, and understand critical weight losses for different species. Critical body weight varies by species, breed, and age, with cattle at risk if weight loss exceeds 20%. Understanding these factors is essential for effective feed resource allocation during emergencies.
Developing countries face feed shortages exacerbated by natural disasters, creating a gap between feed demand and supply. Hydro-meteorological disasters pose challenges in transporting feed, leading to increased costs. In such situations, ensuring animal survival through rationed feeding is crucial. Booster feed can aid in their recovery once conditions improve

A. Write True or False of the following statements

1.    Goats have higher threshold level for bitter taste than other ruminants.

2.    Cattle is acknowledged as mobile pruning machine.

3.    Creep feed should have at least 10% DCP and 58% TDN. 4. Goat under brows condition performs better.

5.    Colostrumshould be fed to the kids @ 10ml/kgbodyweight.

6.    Creepfeed maybe introduced to kidsfrom101 days onwards.

7.    Due to difference in MBS, DMI is higher in larger breeds than smaller breeds.

8.    30-40% of feed intake by goat consists of leaves of shrubs and bushes.

Feed is a significant expense in raising small ruminants, accounting for 60% or more of total production costs. Nutrition is crucial for flock reproduction, milk production, and lamb and kid growth. Late gestation and lactation are critical periods for ewe and doe nutrition, with lactation having the highest nutritional demands. Nutrition levels determine the growth rate of lambs and kids, particularly protein requirements. Animals on inadequate diets are more prone to diseases and fail to reach their full genetic potential.
Small ruminants require energy, protein, vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water for optimal health. Energy is often the most limiting nutrient, while protein is the most costly. Imbalances in vitamins and minerals can affect animal performance and health. Fiber is essential for a healthy rumen environment and digestion. Water, though inexpensive, is often overlooked.
Feed intake percentage varies based on the animal’s size, with smaller animals needing a higher intake proportionally. Maintenance requirements increase with activity levels, environmental conditions, and life stages such as pregnancy, lactation, and growth. Sheep and goats can meet their nutritional needs with various feed sources as long as requirements are met. Feeding programs should consider animal needs, feed availability, and nutrient costs.
Comparative Feeding Behaviour and Digestive Physiology in Goats and Sheep
1. Goats excel in utilizing cell wall-rich and nitrogen-poor forages compared to sheep and cattle.
2. Goats have a longer retention time of feed in the digestive tract, higher cellulolytic bacteria concentration in the rumen, and efficient blood urea recycling.
3. In harsh conditions, goats consume less water and more dry matter than sheep.

Feeding silage is also an important part of the process. Silage can be fed to all kinds of animals. Silage is suitable for feeding 6-7 weeks after ensiling. Purposes of silage feeding are drought feeding, production increases, an aid to pasture or crop management, utilization of excess growth, balancing nutrients in the diet, and the storage of wet feed products. Silage is most likely to be profitable when used to increase productivity or balance nutrient content of the diet.
 
Feeding value of silage is defined as the product of the nutritive value and potential voluntary intake of the forage (Wheeler and Corbett, 1989).

Declaration of facts about the amounts of nutrients required by the various classes of livestockfor differentphysiologicalfunctions like maintenance, growth, lactation, eggproduction, wool productionetc. are in generaltermed as “Feeding standards”. Nutrient requirement is the statement of what animals on an average require for a particular function.Allowanceis greater than the required amount by a ‘safety margin’ which is allowed for variations in requirement between individual animals. Such standards may be expressed in quantities or in dietary proportions, for example gram per day, this method of expression is used mainly for animals given exact quantities of feeds; or gram per kilogram of the diet, this method is used for animals fed to appetite.

Various units are used for feeding standards – for ruminants, the energy requirements may be stated in terms of net energy, metabolizable energy or feed units and protein requirements in terms of crude protein, digestible crude protein or metabolizable protein. It is obviously desirable that the units used in the standards should be the same as those used in the evaluation of feeds. For dairy cows, the requirements are given separately for maintenance and for milk production. But for growing chickens, they are given for maintenance and growth combined. In some instances, the requirements for single functions are not known, for example, vitamins and trace elements. As mentioned above, in feeding practice, the requirement amount is accompanied by the addition of a ‘safety factor’.