eChapters

Feeding standards are vital guidelines that specify the necessary nutrient amounts for animals’ growth, health, and production. These standards have evolved since the nineteenth century and are classified into three types: comparative, digestible nutrient, and production value. They provide daily nutrient requirements or percentages of the diet, depending on the feeding method. Precise feeding uses daily requirements, while ad libitum feeding employs percentages.
A. Comparative type
1. Hay standard: In 1810, German scientist Thaer revolutionized the practice of animal feeding by introducing a standard for comparing different types of feed. This standard used meadow hay as the reference unit and considered it equivalent to 91 lbs. of clover hay, 200 lbs. of potatoes, or 625 lbs. of mangels. This allowed for a more accurate measurement and comparison of feed options, aiding farmers in their feeding decisions. Prior to this, feeding practices relied on practical experience due to limited knowledge of feed composition and animal needs. However, with Thaer’s new standard, farmers were able to make more informed choices when it came to providing proper nutrition for their animals. This marked an important advancement in the field of animal husbandry and laid the foundation for further research and understanding in the years to come.
2. Scandinavian “feed unit” standard: In 1884, Professor Fjord introduced the Scandinavian feeding standard, which focuses on the feed unit. One pound of common grains like corn, barley, or wheat is considered one unit, with other foods valued relative to this. The standard recommends one feed unit per 150 lbs. of body weight, with an additional unit for every three pounds of milk produced.

Effective feeding strategies and feed management are vital for enhancing fish growth, achieving optimal feed conversion ratios (FCR), and reducing both feed wastage and environmental impact. As feed expenses account for around 60–70% of total aquaculture costs, efficient feeding is key to economic and environmental sustainability. A well-designed feeding approach includes selecting appropriate feed types, setting correct feeding rates, timing feedings properly, and observing fish feeding behavior closely. Feed characteristics—such as floating or sinking nature, pellet size, and nutritional composition—should align with the species, age, and health of the fish. Insufficient feeding can result in poor growth and higher disease risk, whereas excessive feeding not only escalates costs but also compromises water quality due to decomposing leftover feed. Feeding rates are usually based on a percentage of body weight, modified according to factors like water temperature, oxygen levels, fish condition, and seasonal changes. For example, warmer weather increases metabolism and appetite, requiring more frequent feedings,

Abstract
As global food security becomes increasingly urgent, high-density aquaculture systems present a viable solution to meet the rising protein demands of the world’s growing population, projected to reach 9.8 billion by 2050. This chapter examines the integration of various innovative aquaculture techniques designed to improve the sustainability and efficiency of fish farming. High-density systems such as recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), biofloc technology (BFT), cage culture, integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA), flow-through aquaculture systems (Raceways), hybrid systems, and vertical farming are explored for their potential to optimize production while minimizing resource consumption. The chapter highlights the critical role of stocking density in improving system performance, influencing factors such as growth rates, water quality, and overall resource use. IMTA, which combines fed species with extractive organisms like seaweeds and shellfish, facilitates nutrient recycling, promoting environmental sustainability and enhanced productivity. Hybrid systems, including Partitioned Aquaculture Systems (PAS) and Bio-RAS, integrate traditional and advanced technologies to overcome the limitations of conventional methods, enabling high-density production with reduced environmental impact. Additionally, vertical farming and aquaponics are examined as complementary strategies, integrating fish farming with plant cultivation to create sustainable, resource-efficient models suitable for urban settings. Through a comprehensive analysis of species selection, stocking densities, and system design, this chapter illustrates the potential of high-density aquaculture as a critical contributor to global food security, reducing pressure on wild fish stocks and promoting long-term environmental sustainability.
Keywords: High stocking density, maximize production, economic viability, environmental sustainability

Carnivore [Carnivora]

Members of this family are mostly flesh-eaters and share features that show hunting lifestyle.

Limbs: These are very powerful, agile quick moving, very active.

Forward-facing eyes: These help in judging distance accurately.

Teeth: All have very strong canine teeth for cutting.

These molars … pre-molars function like shears to slice through flesh (meat).

One exception is the Giant Panda, which is almost-entirely Herbivore, although, most other members of carnivora family would supplement their diet with Vegetation, when necessary.

Pinnipeds [Marine mammals]

In some systems of classification, Pinnipeds are considered as members of Carnivora, for example, marine mammal – Elephant Seal.

Most pinnipeds are collected fromisolated island rookeries, shoelines or seaice. Use of a so – called “Wally” net is the most efficient means of collecting large Seals, such as above Elephant seal. Large transport - cage carries such big animal to shore.

Feeds and Feeding of Poultry

Proper feeding is crucial for the optimal growth, health, and productivity of poultry. It constitutes a significant portion of the total production cost in poultry farming, often accounting for 70-75%. Understanding the different types of feed ingredients and their nutritional contributions is essential for formulating balanced diets that meet the specific needs of poultry at various stages of growth and production.

Different Feed Ingredients Used in Poultry

Poultry feed ingredients are broadly classified into four categories: energy rich feedstuffs, protein-rich feedstuffs, vitamin and mineral sources, and non nutritive feed additives. Typically, commercial poultry feeds are formulated by blending 10-15 different ingredients to provide a balanced diet that meets the nutritional requirements of the birds.

Feeds and feeding of dairy animals are arguably the most important part of the dairy farm management. And it is not only what we feed that is important but how we manage our feeding is equally as critical. What we feed today not only determines the animal’s milk production but also influences their entire lactation cycle that follows. Dairy animal feeding with balanced ration influences health status, reproductive, productive performance and better economic return in organic environment, all of which are critical to a profitable and sustainable dairy business as well as welfare of the dairy farmers. Feed costs currently account for around 45 percent of total milk price on average, with concentrates representing around 35 percent and forages around 10 percent.

Introduction

Optimum nutrition is one of the fundamental requirement for sustainable and efficient goat production . It involves the judicious selection and use of available feed resources in formulating a palatable, economical and nutritionally balanced ration for goats. In common with cattle, sheep and buffalo, goat is endowed with a pouch in the stomach called rumen and can digest a wide variety of herbage (tree leaves, grasses, weeds, legumes); agro-industrial by-products (Salseed meal, neem seed cake, bagasse, molasses, citrus pulp, oil cakes) and non-protein nitrogen sources such as urea. The rumen ecology of the goat is unique among other ruminants, with an adaptability to rapid changes in dietary components.Goats are reputed to be better utilizers of poor quality roughages. The traditional feeding systems for goats are based on native grasses available in the natural grassland and forests and the main constraints to goat production are lack of feed, particularly in the dry season. Goat production in developing countries is largely dependent on fibrous feeds –mainly crop residues and low quality pasture –that are deficient in nitrogen, minerals and vitamins. Goats diet in the tropics is largely composed of tree leaves and shrubs (browse), which ensure a reliable and steady supply of nutrients all the year around, albeit at a low to medium quality food

Goats are generally maintained on browsing on natural rangelands, community pastures and tree loppings. Goats prefer browsing as compared to grazing. They can digest tree leaves and farm weeds which cattle do not consume. Now the goats are being used as natural weeder. Goat producers in India are primarily located in semi-arid and arid zones where low capability land with shrub vegetation provides the grazing area. Improved pasture or its management for the goat production is naturally considered irrelevant to landless and socio-economically depressed farmers. Due to progressive fall in the forest cover (currently less than 20%), the administrators and planners are highly critical about the development of goats, dependent on extensive grazing in areas defined as fragile zone. On the contrary, the demand for reclamation of low capability soil to more productive agricultural land is ever increasing with the phenomenal growth in human population over the years in India.

1.1 Introduction

Agriculture and allied sector contributes nearly 18 percent of gross domestic product in Indian economy and more than 70 percent population is dependent on agriculture and allied sector. In this sector, livestock is an integral part and it provides essential commodities and livelihood to the majority of its population. Livestock sector provides sustainability and stability to the national economy by contributing farm energy and food security. During last decade, the annual growth rate for livestock population maintained and in contrast the crop production remained stagnant or increased marginally. Between 1983 and 1999, the per capita consumption of milk increased by 37 percent and meat, egg and fish by 24 percent.

Natural disasters frequently lead to significant shortages of animal feed, a common challenge faced by livestock owners. Events such as earthquakes, landslides, heavy rainfall, flooding, droughts, and cyclones can severely impact the well-being of livestock. Intense rainfall is often the primary factor contributing to both flooding and landslides, particularly in the hilly regions of India, where such landslides are a regular occurrence. The essential components of animal feed include both green and dry roughages, with dried roughages, such as straw, constituting approximately 60 to 80 percent of the total dry matter intake for livestock. Unfortunately, the occurrence of landslides or floods can abruptly disrupt transportation networks, including roads and railways. Consequently, livestock owners are compelled to rely on locally available unconventional feed sources during these challenging times.
Unconventional Feed Resources: In periods of resource scarcity, various unconventional indigenous ingredients can be employed. Such times may see the utilization of materials like tapioca, jackfruit, pineapple waste, sugarcane bagasse, rice bran or rice polish, water hyacinth, rubber seed cake, chicken litter and droppings, tea waste, urea and molasses, all of which can serve as valuable feed components. In comparison, low-quality rice straw and fallen leaves from trees are the predominant roughages, constituting approximately 60 to 70 percent of the total feed for cattle. The main sources of roughage during scarcity typically include straws from cereals or pulses, fallen leaves, dried grasses and foliage from forests and jungles. The collection or harvesting of roughages can be challenging due to their bulk, particularly in the case of forest leaves. Additionally, the volume of these materials presents significant transportation challenges. Consequently, chaffing roughages at the harvesting site emerges as the most effective solution for facilitating transport and minimizing costs. The densification of chaffed roughages further enhances their transport efficiency. Chaffing roughage is essential for the preparation of complete feed blocks (CFB) and total mixed rations (TMR).

Patients are unable to consume foods and fluids orally when they are suffering fromillness. Under surgical conditions, severe burns, severe infectious neonatal infants, congenital anomalies, anorexia, coma or dysfunction of elementary tract etc., special feeding methods should be used for feeding such patients.

Objectives

• To provide water and electrolytes to prevent dehydration and correct electrolyte imbalance.

• To make up the loss of tissue protein.

• To provide energy to meet the daily needs of the patients.

The nutrients used in intravenous feeding are :

a) Water and electrolytes : The daily minimum water requirement of an adult on anaverage is 1.5 liters.Additional waterwillbe requiredto correct dehydration that might have occurred before therapy. The water loss made up in about 24 hour and the urinary excretion restored to about 300-400 ml in every 8 hrs.

b) Carbohydrates and alcohol : Glucose, Fructose and Sorbitol are used in intravenous feeding. Three per cent alcohol @ 8 g/h can also be given; because this provides 7.1 kcal energy/ g. Glucose is usuallyadministered as 5 % solution. Fructoseis preferred to Glucose, as it can be administered at a concentration of 10-15 % without any adverse effect.

c) Amino acids : Solution form of Protein hydrolysates, Synthetic amino acid mixture and a mixture of L-amino acids are available for intravenous feeding. Protein hydrolysates prepared from casein, free from peptides and fortified withTryptophan are commonlyusedfor intravenous therapy.

d) Whole blood or plasma : One litre of whole blood provides about 180 gm proteins including haemoglobin. Blood is used mainly to combat circulatoryfailure andloss of bloodfrombody. One liter of plasma contain about 60-70 gm of protein. Plasma infusion is given as a measure for increasing plasma protein level when it is low.

e) Vitamins: All the vitamins (twice daily requirements) should be added to intravenous fluid to meet the daily needs of the patient.

Felid medicine needs to be well understood by the veterinarians in zoos or in any other captive wild animal places. Severe toxic reactions occur by usage of paracetamol in felids. Methaemoglobinaemia is the toxic sign noticed in felids. Hence, the zoo veterinarian can use either meloxicam or ketoprofen, in general. Tetracyclines are the drugs of choice for Ehrlichia canis and Rickettsia rickettsii in feline as well as in canine medicine.

The female genital organs (Fig. 4-6 A) comprise the ovaries where the female gametes (ova) are produced, the uterine (fallopian) tubes which convey the ova to the uterus and where the fertilization takes place, the uterus in which the ovum and the embryo develops, the dilatable passage formed by the vagina and vulva through which the foetus is expelled to the exterior and the mammary glands (udder) which is functionally associated with the female genital organs. All of these except the mammary glands are located in the abdominal and pelvic cavity while the mammary glands are located outside the cavity in the perineal region.

Ovaries

The ovaries are two small oval glands measuring about 3.5 to 4.0 cm in length, 2.5 cm in width and about 1.5 cm in thickness and they weigh about 15 to 20 gm. They are oval in form and are situated a little above the middle of the pelvic inlet and approximately 40 to 45 cm cranial to vulvar opening in a middle sized cow. They are attached to the sublumbar region by the cranial part of the broad ligament of uterus, the mesovarium. Each ovary presents for description two surfaces, two borders and two extremities. The medial and the lateral surfaces of the ovary are smooth and rounded. The attached or mesovarial border is convex. It is enclosed in a part of the broad ligament termed as mesovarium. The vessels and nerves reach the ovary by way of mesovarium to this border and enter the gland through the hilus. The free border which is also convex presents a notch in its middle. The ovarian vessels and nerves enter the gland through this notch. The cranial or tubal extremity is rounded and is related to the fimbriated end of the uterine tube. The caudal or uterine extremity is also round but narrower and is connected to the horn of the uterus by the ovarian ligament.

The reproductive system of female domestic animals consists of (1) A pair of ovaries attached with ligaments to the uterus (2) A pair of fallopian tubes the distal ends of which (infundibula) serve to receive ova expelled from the ovary and the proximal ends enter the uterus (3) The uterus proper with its outer smooth myometrium and inner mucous endometrium which either sloughs off periodically or develops in part into a placenta, depending on whether pregnancy occurs (4) Vagina which serves to receive sperm.

Ovaries

The two ovaries are connected to the back of the female with ligaments inside the main body cavity. When puberty, or sexual maturity is reached, the ovaries begin to function with a rhythm or cycle of activity, the most evident manifestation of which is estrus or heat. The estrus period or heat is the period when the female is receptive to the male. The duration of heat in cattle is around 19 hours. The interval between heats in 19½ to 20 days in cattle. The duration of estrus and cycle is variable in different individuals and in different seasons of the year.

The ovarian parenchyma contains a large number of potential egg forming cells. There are many more of these than are required for the breeding life of female. New follicles begin to grow each estrus cycle one of which finally ovulates.

The ovary is covered by the peritoneum except the attached border where the vessels and nerves enter. In most animals the ovary is some what divided into a cortex, in which the follicles with the developing ova are located and a medulla which is rich in blood vessels, lymphaticus and nerves.

Each Graafian follicle normally contains only one developing ovum. The follicle vary in size according to their stage of development, the more advanced project the surface of the ovary slightly.

Reproduction is essential for the survival of the species but not for the survival of the individual. The female reproductive system is entrusted with the responsibility to produce female gametes ie ova and hormones that regulate and integrate the functional activity of the female reproduction.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) is important seed spices belonging to family Apiaceae, and a native of Southern Europe and Mediterranean area. Later it spread to the far East and far north in Europe. To the ancient Greeks, fennel represented success and so it was called “Marathon” in reference to the battle, fought in fennel field where the Greeks defeated the Persians in 490 B.C. Fennel was also a symbol of success to the Romans. During the thirteenth century in England, fennel was considered as a royal spice and was served to kings with fruits, bread and pickled fish seasoned with fennel seeds. Fennel was even described by Longfellow in his poem The Goblet of Life. According to early Sanskrit writings, fennel has been described as Madhurika and was known as far back as 2000 BC for its cultivation in India.

Thrips : Thrips flavus : Thripidae

Infestation of thrips is generally during hot months with high night humidity.  The attack by thrips leads to discolouration, bronzing and drying of affected leaves.

Semilooper : Thysanoplusia orichalcea  : Noctuidae

Bluish green or grey coloured eggs are laid singly on lower surface of leaves.  Larvae feed voraciously on leaves and defoliate plants.

English name : Fennel
Botanical name : Foeniculum vulgare Miller
Family : Apiaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 22
Centre of origin : Southern Europe, Asia and Africa
Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Miller), commonly known as Saunf or Badi Saunf, belongs to the Apiaceae family and is primarily cultivated for its seeds, from which fennel oil is extracted. The main component of fennel oil from cultivated F. vulgare is trans-anethole, which typically makes up 50-60% of the oil. Other constituents include d-2 fenchone, methyl chavicol, 2-pinene, camphene, d-2 phellandrene, dipentenes, B-pinene, terpinene, limonene, 1,8-cineole, a-terpinene, linalool, cis-anethole, anisic aldehyde, anisic ketone, and foenicullin. Recently, the presence of a toxic ketonic constituent has been reported. Indian fennel oil contains over 70% anethole and around 6% fenchone. Sweet or Roman fennel fruits are rich in anethole, phellandrene, and d-limonene, with a high concentration of anethole (up to 90%) and the absence of fenchone contributing to its sweet fragrance and flavour. Anisaldehyde and anisic acid have also been identified as present.

Botany:Fenugreek is a leguminous plant, belonging to the Papilionaceae family. Fenugreek is an annual herbaceous plant between 20 and 50cm high. (sometimes up to 100cm.). Its stem is erect, branched, grooved and with little pubescence. The leaves are compound, petiolate, oblong leaflets formed by three kills reminding those of alfalfa. White or yellow flowers , isolated or arranged in pairs. Fenugreek fruits are narrow and elongated pods. They contain 10 to 20 seeds, tiny yellow, quadrangular, with a groove in the central part dividing them into two unequal lobes.

Land Requirements: Land to be used for seed production of Kasuri methi and methi shall be free from volunteer plants.

Varieties: Co 1, Pusa Early Bunching, Lam selection 1, Rajendra Kranti, Kissar Sonali, RMT1and CO 2.

Soil: A rich well drained loamy soil is best suited.

Climate: Cool and comparatively dry, frost free climate. It requires a warm climate with mild temperatures for a good seed production (between 8 and 27°C).It grows well in full sun. Sow it in places sheltered from the wind. Resistant to frost and temperatures down to -5°C. However, low temperatures during planting causes not all seeds to germinate.

Season: June - July and October - November.

2.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to South Eastern Europe, West Asia and Mediterranean region.

• Cultivated in Central and Southeastern Europe, Western Asia, India, and Northern Africa.

• In India, cultivated in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Punjab.

2.2. Economic importance

• Culinary use in smaller quantities.

• Used as an herb (Dried or fresh leaves), spice (Seeds) and vegetable (Fresh leaves, sprouts, and micro greens).

• Seeds are used both whole and powdered in the preparation of pickles, vegetable dishes, dal and spice mixes such as panch phoron and sambar powder.

• Balance cholesterol.

• Soothe upset stomach and digestive problems.

• Reduce menstrual cramps.

• Seeds are aphrodisiac effect.

• Reduce appetite.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Fenugreek is one of the oldest cultivated spice crops of the world and grown for its medicinal value and forage in India, Western Asia and Nile valley since remote antiquity. In Egypt, it has been cultivated since 1000 BC and is part of the Indian diet for over 3000 years. Fenugreek is used as an important component of holy smoke in Egyptian incense. It is found growing wild in parts of northern India and cultivated all over the subcontinent for its green leaves and seeds. Fenugreek is a native of south-eastern Europe and Western Asia.  India is also said to be a native of fenugreek (Shanmugavelu et al., 2002) and found growing wild in Kashmir, Punjab and upper Gangetic plains.

English name : Fennel
Botanical name : Foeniculum vulgare Miller
Family : Apiaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 22
Centre of origin : Southern Europe, Asia and Africa
Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Miller), commonly known as Saunf or Badi Saunf, belongs to the Apiaceae family and is primarily cultivated for its seeds, from which fennel oil is extracted. The main component of fennel oil from cultivated F. vulgare is trans-anethole, which typically makes up 50-60% of the oil. Other constituents include d-2 fenchone, methyl chavicol, 2-pinene, camphene, d-2 phellandrene, dipentenes, B-pinene, terpinene, limonene, 1,8-cineole, a-terpinene, linalool, cis-anethole, anisic aldehyde, anisic ketone, and foenicullin. Recently, the presence of a toxic ketonic constituent has been reported. Indian fennel oil contains over 70% anethole and around 6% fenchone. Sweet or Roman fennel fruits are rich in anethole, phellandrene, and d-limonene, with a high concentration of anethole (up to 90%) and the absence of fenchone contributing to its sweet fragrance and flavour. Anisaldehyde and anisic acid have also been identified as present.

Fermentation was known to mankind from time immemorial. But, development of biochemical principles of  fermentation  was originated by  Lavoisier in France in 1789 by way of analysing chemical composition of  sugar and its fermentation products such as ethanol, carbon dioxide and  acetic acid. Many products are produced by fermentation process. In fermentation, controlled action of selected microorganisms is used to alter  texture of foods, preserve foods by production of acids or alcohol or to produce fine flavours and aromas which increase value of raw materials.

Introduction

Fermentation is one of the oldest food preservation techniques that can be traced back thousands of years. Fermentation is referred as one of method of biopreservation as it leads to extending the shelf life of foods that involve the use of microorganisms and their metabolites. (Ross et al., 2002) For millennia, the fermentation of food by using micro organisms has been used as a technique for ensuring shelf life extension and improving the quality characteristics, texture and flavour of food products as well as to develop new innovative products. The major bacteria used in food fermentation worldwide are lactic acid bacteria (LAB). LAB is a multitude of genera including Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Streptococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Enterococcus. Lactic acid bacteria constitutes a diverse group of bacteria that enjoys the status of “generally regarded as safe” (GRAS) and “qualified presumption of safety” (QPS) by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), respectively. In this respect, starter microorganisms are known to produce a wide array of antimicrobial and protein-acoustic compounds to inhibit the growth of undesirable flora in foodstuffs resulting in shelf life extension. (Hill et al., 2017).

1. INTRODUCTION

Fermentation is an age old technology. It has been used by man since antiquity. It has been employed to produce a number of fermented products such as wine, beer, curd, vinegar, pickles and several others. Fermentation was discovered quite early and by chance but the underlying principles were discovered very late. Primarly fermentation was used as a method of shelf-life extension of the produce in the time of glut production, though the final product had modified sensory qualities. Thus, fermentation and drying were the main methods of preservation. With the discovery of new methods of preservation, fermentation as a method of preservation has gone into background and as technique of flavour development and product with modified sensory quality came into practice. In this chapter, fermentation as a method of preservation has been described.

Millets are highly nutritious and play a significant role in many people’s diets around the world. They have traditionally been transformed into a range of products through fermentation and malting for centuries. In the era of sustainable development, we still lag in using millets as a primary source of nutrition even after knowing that they are rich in terms of nutrition and other essential elements as compared to cereals. Today we have lots of information regarding different millets; nutrition content, methods of preservation, fermentation, malting, its products etc. Foods made from millet are regarded as potential prebiotics because they can improve the availability or functionality of probiotics, which has major positive effects on health. Foods have been fermented in order to enhance their flavor, texture and palatability. Although fermentation can result in a variety of products, the most prevalent ones are ethanol, lactic acid, carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas (H2 ). Commercial applications for these materials include use in food, vitamins, medications and industrial chemicals. Additionally, fermentation increases the amount of protein present, improves the accessibility of carbohydrates and reduces antinutritional components like tannin and phytic acid. Even though it has some drawbacks, such as the potential for contamination with dangerous microbes, fermentation technology is proven to enhance the nutritional quality of food products. This chapter covers the millet fermentation technology’s effects on the nutritional composition of the millets, contemporary developments in fermented millet-based products and technological improvements examined in the millet fermentation technology.

INTRODUCTION

For thousands of years fermentation processes were largely natural phenomena exclusively identified with food preservation throughout the world. Fermentations can play a significant role in meeting the ever growing food requirements of world population providing benefits in the form of innovative food products with improved nutritional value and food quality along side better safety. Fermentations can be used to address a large variety of food related problems and in the development of processes to meet the demand for food. In the wake of estimations made by international organizations that global food demand and population would increase by two-fold by the year 2050, much emphasis has been placed over the ways and means to increase food production and preservation.

Introduction

Wine is a very unique fermented beverage. It was an essential part of various religious and cultural ceremonies in ancient civilizations; and continues to be considered as a ‘drink for elite’. The reason is that wine was considered as ‘Gift of God and ‘God’s nectar’ in religious text books, and medicinal value of the beverage is well supported by modern science. Wine is a beverage well tagged with its geographical origin. This concept originally comes from French concept of terroir; which explains that a varietal wine from a defined region possess distinctive qualities. Wine makers of the past enjoyed this definition of quality for better marketing opportunities. Today, globalization and advancement in wine science created empowered consumers who could clearly discriminate quality of wines. In addition to a product with high sensory qualities, consumers expect a healthful beverage produced in an environmentally sustainable manner. Enology research projects focus on such aspects; and this chapter is a glance on enology advancements and proven health benefits of wine, such as cardiovascular health gut health, dental health etc.

Introduction

Fermented foods are those foods which have been subjected to the action of microorganisms or enzymes that cause desirable biochemical changes and significant modification of the food (Campbell-Piatt, 1994). Fermented foods are usually produced using ingredients of plants or animals in combination with bacteria or fungi. The bacteria or fungi are either sourced from cultures maintained by humans or from the environment. The origins of fermented foods go back many thousands of years, with early evidence of the alcoholic fermentations of barley to beer and grapes to wine. Evidence suggests that fermented foods were consumed 7,000 years ago in Babylon (Battcock and Azam-Ali, 1998).Throughout the world, the fermented foods are used by the people. It plays a major role in the diet in many developing countries. Several traditional fermented foods are prepared in rural areas of many countries.

Fermentation in food processing typically is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria, or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions.

2.1. The Story of Fermentation

Human progress depends on man’s tact to tame the forces of nature. It calls for knowledge. Prior to Age of Science, our fund of such knowledge was gained by a process of trial, error and accidental discovery. Progress was due not so much to man’s understanding as it was to his unquenchable spirit, miraculous ingenuity and indomitable persistence.

At last, in the utmost urgency of struggle for a longer, healthier and more satisfying existence, humanity taught itself the scientific method, which has changed the world, and will change it more in the coming years. This chapter deals with one of the most momentous and far reaching of all scientific achievements: the ability to harness microscopic living creatures in the service of mankind. Thanks to the wonders of fermentation technology and biochemical engineering developed by scientists and skilled technicians in industrial, governmental and university laboratories around the world, billions of microbes are now at work in industry, producing substances that give us better food $#x0026; drink, better clothing $#x0026; shelter and better medicines. Thus, the human race has entered a new era of health, comfort and longevity.

In the Beginning Art without Science: The cave man discovered that meat allowed to stand a few days was more pleasing to the taste than meat eaten soon after the kill. The cave man’s earliest descendants learned that intoxicating drinks could be made from grains and fruits.

Introduction

Fermentation is an alluring procedure of biochemical adjustment of essential nourishment microorganisms and their enzymes accomplish by lattice. Fermentation is a utilized to upgrade bio-accessibility and bioavailability of supplements from various crops and improves organoleptic properties (e.g., appearance, generation of sour taste and new aroma compounds, and textural changes such as consistency or viscosity) just as increase the shelf life of realistic usability. It makes foodstuff safe not just hindering the growth of pathogenic microorganisms because of antimicrobial growth of lactic acid and it also detoxifies aflatoxin. With these advantages, fermentation is a successful method to reduce the risk of mineral deficiency among population, particularly in developing nations where unrefined cereal or pulses are profoundly consumed. Tragically, it is additionally connected with multiplication of microorganisms, for ex., yeast and molds caused food safety concerns, (Omemu et al; 2011), decrease in provitamin A and antioxidant (Ortiz et al; 2017), carotenoids, just as loss of nutrients and minerals (Hotz & Gibson, 2007).

Fermentation is a minimum cost-efficient procedure for production and preservation of nutrient, therefore fermented food is an important piece of the eating regimen in numerous of the world. In the nineteenth century the scientific study of microbiology began, and just because, the scientific procedure of fermentation was comprehended. several classifications have been utilized to sort the assorted exhibit of the fermented nourishment produced dependent on various microorganisms, and food types, and kinds of fermentation included.

The microorganisms associated with fermentation process fall into three classes: bacteria, yeast, and molds. Yeasts are the principal microorganisms for the fermentation of breads, whereas molds is mainly used in processing of cheese and legumes. Bacteria is included only of the fermentation of cereal product. cereal and tuber fermentation are a lactic and acetic acid producing bacteria. yeast is a piece of mix microbial fermentation by bacteria in weaning food; all the more frequently, be that as it may, alcoholic fermentation of yeast may not totally alluring. Four genera of lactic acid producing bacteria are recognized as overwhelming cereal fermentation to be specific, Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Lactococcus spp. all of which require carbohydrate for the energy. Lactic acid and other natural acids produced from hexoses bring down the pH from about 6.5 to about 3.6. In the event that the pH is beneath 4.0, fermented product retard the growth of pathogens and along these lines ensure fermented items.

Fermented foods are food substrates that are produced due to the cumulative activity, usually of edible microorganisms, whose enzymes, particularly amylases, proteases and lipases hydrolyze the polysaccharides, proteins and lipids to non-toxic products with flavours, aromas and textures pleasant and attractive to the human consumer. The role played by fermentation during food processing helps in – enrichment of human dietary through development of wide diversity of flavours, aromas and textures in food; preservation of substantial amounts of food through lactic acid, alcoholic, acetic acid, alkaline fermentation and high salt fermentations; enrichment of food substrates biologically with vitamins, protein, essential amino acids, essential fatty acids and antibiotics; detoxification during food fermentation processing and reducing the cooking times and fuel requirements.

Fermentation plays a major role in our diet and give the basic foods like bread, yoghurt, wine and cereal and legume based traditional fermented foods. The development of fermented food products can be considered as one of the greatest achievements of human civilization and goes back thousands of years. It arose from the necessity to conserve foods, to make them more digestible and also more enjoyable. During the centuries, man learned by trial and error to conduct the fermentation processes by changing physical and chemical parameters in the basic food ingredients. It took much longer, however, to discover the cause of fermentation processes: only towards the end of the 19th century it was demonstrated, that baker’s yeast is the cause of alcoholic fermentation. Through the development of the technique of "pure microbial culture", the basis for a controlled use of microbes in food industry was established.

The unique feature of fermented foods is the vital role of microorganisms that bring about essential bio-trasformations of the substrates during fermentation contributing number of desirable properties such as improved product shelf life, enriched diet with improved flavor and texture, increased safety, enriched nutritional supplement and probiotic functions. Fermentation is a chemical reaction carried out by many types of microorganisms to obtain energy. Fermentation is a process for production of a product by means of mass culture of microorganisms. In fermentation, microorganisms breakdown complex organic compounds into simpler substances. Although chemical changes and microbial growth usually mean food spoilage, in some cases fermentation is desirable and microorganisms are actually added to foods. For example, in the production of beer, wine, and other alcoholic beverages, yeasts convert sugar into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. In the making of yogurt and cheese, lactic acid bacteria convert lactose, a sugar found in milk, to lactic acid. Alcohol, acids, and other compounds produced in fermentation act as preservatives, inhibiting further microbial growth. In addition to its use with alcoholic beverages, cheese, and yoghurt, fermentation is used to produce yeast bread, soy sauce, cucumber pickles, sauerkraut, and other traditional fermented food products. The variation in agroclimatic conditions prevailing in India and diverse form of dietary culture of various ethnical groups produced traditional fermented foods such as idli, dosa (rice-legume based), vada, papad, wari, balle (legume based), bhatura, jelabi, nan (wheat based), paneer, shrikhand (milk based).

Introduction

Eradication of malnutrition and hunger (Sustainable Development Goal, SDG-2) are the major challenges to humanity. Availability of sufficient nutritionally balanced food is the prerequisite for ensuring global food security. Food security is also critical for achievement of SDG 1 (poverty eradication) and SDG 3 (health and well-being) (UNDP, 2019). Changing climatic conditions accompanied by global warming not only acts a major threat for achievement of SDGs but could actually lead to the reversal of the progress already made. The escalating global temperature has jeopardized the food security throughout the world. A great decrease in the global crop yield has been suspected even with a 2°C rise in temperature. On field, it is often associated with crop nutrient loss, less accumulation of micronutrients and low availability of micro-minerals like iron and zinc. Additionally, the effect of the rainfall and temperature has also been observed. The global food prices are projected to increase by 3–84% by 2050 due to the fluctuations in rainfall and temperature (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2018).

Millets are the small seeded grains which belong to family Grassacae/Poaceae. Traditionally, millets are used for the food and feed purpose and are among the oldest cultivated crops. The millet species of commercial importance are proso (Panicum miliaceum), foxtail (Setaria italica), barnyard (Echinochloa esculenta), finger (Eleusine coracana), little (Panicum sumatrense) and pearl (Pennisetum glaucum) in different regions of the world. In India, foxtail millet (priyangava), barnyard millet (aanava) and black finger millet (shyaamaka) have been mentioned even in the Yajurveda texts of 4500 BC (Morya et al., 2017). The records of consumption of foxtail and proso millet are as old as 2000 to 1000 BC in China. Cultivation of foxtail millet in Korean peninsula is documented around 3,500–2,000 BC. Foxtail millet is the oldest of all the cultivated millets and is believed to be originated in Southern Asia. From there, it was spread to Europian nations. In the west, cultivation of millets majorly started after 1850 (ICRISAT, 2019)

Introduction

Fermentation of food dates back to ancient practice of wine making. Fermented foods reflect culture and tradition of folklore and emphasis their close association with nature. Various methods employed for fermenting foods aimed in food preservation to reduce wastage; however lactic acid fermentation enhanced nutrition content and improved organoleptic properties. Experimental evidences on benefits on health and wellness on consumption of fermented foods are being reported. Fermentation process used for preparation of indigenous or traditional foods often depend entirely on natural microflora on the surface of raw material and containers used; Practices of fermenting foods are passed on as traditional know how to generations as a legacy. The fermented food manufacturers rely on commercial starter cultures, and highly reliant on indigenous materials as microbial collections are unique and highly variable according to region and products. Therefore, isolation of novel organisms, development of newer products and interactions are being explored using variety of fermented foods obtained through traditional processes

Introduction

The art of fermentation process is developed as far back as thousand years ago without understanding the role of microorganism in it. It is believed that the process of fermentation originates in Indus valley during 7000 – 8000 BC. Archives of harappan civilization showed that different clay utensils were used for the fermented product and the agriculture and animal husbandry were fully developed during that period. It is evident from the artifacts of Egypt and middle east that the practice of fermentation was common in that part (Farnworth, 2003). The earliest practice of cheese making is originated from Falcate between Tigris and the Euphrates rivers in Iraq, 8000 years back. Later, Egyptians developed the use of yeast in wine and bread making during 4000 BC (Ross et al., 2002). Further, Sumarians prepared beer from fermented barley during 1750 BC. Earlier the fermenting process was an artisan way without any knowledge of microorganism. However, the main turning point was in 1608, when Antony Van Leeuwenhoek first established the use of a microscope and revealed the existence of microorganisms. Another, major finding was Pasteurization by Louis Pasteur in 1861 AD and this was the first report that documented the role of microorganism in fermentation. Later, there was a shift observed in the production of fermented food from local communities to large scale industry. The health effect of fermented food was first reported by Roman historian Pliny, who reported that fermented milk is beneficial for gastrointestinal complains. Further, a French paediatrician proved that Bifidobacteria in food prevents infants against infection (Grill et al., 1995).

1. Introduction

Now a days, foods are not intended to only satisfy hunger and to provide necessary nutrients but also to prevent nutrition-related diseases and improve physical and mental well-being of the consumers (Menrad, 2003). In this regard, functional foods play an important role. The concept of functional foods which has evolved as the role of food in the maintenance of health and well-being and in the prevention of disease, has received increased scientific and commercial interest is recent past. Growth of functional foods markets include increased consumer health awareness, increased popularity of healthy foods, search for food-based drug substitutes, self-medication approach promoted by busy lifestyles and rapidly developing health conscious markets. Functional foods can be defined as foods “that can beneficially affect one or more target functions in the body, beyond adequate nutritional effect, in a way relevant to an improved state of health and wellbeing and/or reduction of risk of disease” (Stanton et al., 2005).

14.1 Introduction
India is now the top producer of milk globally, accounting for 13.1% of the world’s total milk output. Fresh milk, if left at room temperature, will spoil within a few hours. To extend its shelf life, some of the fresh milk can be converted into fermented products. This fermentation process not only prolongs the product’s shelf life but also enhances its flavor and makes it easier to digest. Historical evidence suggests that people have been making fermented milk products since as far back as 10,000 B.C. Various strains of Lactobacilli have been cultivated in labs to create a diverse array of cultured milk products with unique flavors. Since as early as 10,000 B.C., milk has been utilized to produce fermented dairy items in different parts of the world. These fermented products offer benefits such as improved digestibility, distinctive tastes, added probiotics, vitamins, minerals, and extended shelf life. There is an enormous diversity of fermented dairy products globally, with each product’s characteristics influenced by the local strains used in the fermentation process.
14.2 Lassi
In India and Pakistan, lassi is a somewhat common beverage. It is produced by combining Indian spices with water or milk and curd or yogurt. Sweet lassi is made with sugar or fruits rather than spices; traditional lassi, sometimes called salted lassi, or just lassi, is a savory beverage occasionally seasoned with ground roasted cumin.

Pteridophytes such as ferns belonging to several families, selaginellas popularly called ‘club mosses’ belonging to Selaginellaceae and the Lycopods which resemble both these, belonging to Lycopodiaceae are shade loving plants adapted to cool and moist or hot and humid ecosystems of tropical to temperate climates. They are mostly epiphytic or lithophytic and are grown as foliage ornamentals in a fernery or in shaded areas in gardens. Many are favoured indoor plants.

Popularly grown ferns, lycopods and selaginellas of gardens are listed below:

Adiantum capillus-veneris

Adiantaceae

Common Maidenhair fern

Plants are shade loving bushy lithophytes and have delicate looking thin black stems carrying light green oblique-ovate fronds. They are pot grown as ornamental foliage plants.

Adiantum decorum

Syn. Adiantum raddianum

Adiantaceae

Maidenhair fern

1. Ornamental ferns

Adiantum capillus – Maiden hair fern

Asplenium nidus – Bird’s nest fern

Cheilanthes argentea – Silver fern

Davallia bullata – Squirrels foot fern

Nephrolepsis aureum - Boston fern

Polypodium aureum – Hare’s foot fern

Pteris cretica – Brake/ Ribbon fern

Drynaria quercifolia -Oak-leaf fern / basket fern

Definition: Ferns are flowerless plant that has feathery or leafy fronds. These are reproduced by spores released from the undersides of the fronds.

It is a member of a group of about 10,560 known extant that differ from mosses by being vascular (i.e. having water-conducting vessels). Like other vascular plants, they have branched stems and leaves.

A wide range of beautiful plants exist among ferns which are very popular worldwide. Ferns are grown for their beautiful foliage and their gracefulness. Most of the house ferns are native of tropical regions and are ideal for indoor planting, as they can grow well under shaded or semi-shaded situations. Many species of ferns are native to India. Some of them can be easily grown while others are much difficult, but can be grown well preferably under suitable growing media and proper management.

Fig 8.1: A scheme for fertigation program working with automation

In modern farming with fertigation machines (NutriCare) and automated drip irrigation systems, fertigation set up schemes like the above are put into practice. This scheme will stream line the installation, operation and monitoring of the entire process. An informed grower would be able to control crop performance more precisely and achieve his objectives.

The crop growing environment, both soil/media and aerial are controlled in green house. Therefore, the movement of water (liquid and vapour) and minerals (nutrient ions) follow a different pattern altogether. This factor should be considered while preparing the fertigation program. This becomes all the more different if soil-less rooting media is used.

Table 7.1: Differences in Nutrient uptake in open field and Protected (GH) conditions.

A. CEREALS

1. Rice (Oryza sativa)

RD 60:20:20 kg/acre NPK

(Recommended by TNAU)

Introduction

India is the second most populous country in the world. The per capita cultivable land resource is shrinking day by day. To meet the food, fibre, fuel, fodder, and other needs of the growing population, the productivity of agricultural land has necessarily to be increased. It requires increased use of agricultural inputs like quality seeds, fertilizers, water, agro-chemicals, etc. in such a manner that do not create any environmental problems.

Plant needs different chemical elements to grow and thrive. The most important chemical elements include (i) carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, which are basic life building blocks and are available in plenty from air and water (ii) nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium which are the macro nutrients and affect the plant growth significantly (iii) sulfur, calcium, and magnesium as secondary nutrients and (iv) boron, chloride, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum and zinc as micronutrients in very small quantities.

SUMMARY

Fertigation is the injection of concentrated soluble nutrients into irrigation water to enhance crop production. It is used extensively in commercial agriculture and horticulture. In combination with micro-irrigation (drip irrigation), this technique forms an efficient method for precisely applying nutrients close to the crop root zone, especially when a polyethylene mulch is used. Fertigation is used to spoon feed additional nutrients or correct nutrient deficiencies detected in plant tissue analysis and usually practiced with high value crops such as vegetables, turf, fruit trees, and ornamentals. Water supply for fertigation kept separate from domestic water supply to avoid contamination. Fertilizing fruit and vegetable crops requires a delicate balance between yield, quality, and environmental impact. Fertigation increases response to nitrogen (N) and provides greater opportunity to control rates to optimum levels to the root zone. Providing nutrients through the irrigation system enables more flexibility in a fertilizer program. Several types of irrigation systems are available for use in crop production. For any system used, approved backflow control valves and interlock devices are necessary to prevent accidental contamination of the water source due to irrigation system failure or shutdown.

The Fertilizer (Control) Order

The Fertilizer (Control) Order (FCO) is a set of legally enforceable executive orders issued by the Govt. of India under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 passed by the Parliament. This order came into force in 1957, essentially to regulate the sale, price and quality of fertilizers in India. Amendments are made from time to time as per the exigencies and need of the hour and therefore a large number of amendments were made over a period of time. Consequently, after an overall review of the various provisions of the order, a revised Fertilizer (Control) Order 1985, was issued, which came into effect on September 25, 1985. The FCO consists of five Schedules comprising of different activities as mentioned in Figure 8.1, besides forms of registrations and appendices.

Schedule I comprises Part A and B. While Part A contains the specifications of different fertilizers (e.g. minimum nutrient content, maximum moisture content, range of physical parameters, maximum levels of impurities/ contaminants, etc.), that can be marketed in India (no material not performs the specifications as in the FCO cannot be sold as fertilizer), Part B lists the tolerance limits in plant nutrients and physical parameters for various fertilizers. Schedule II encompasses again two parts, with Part A describing the procedures for drawal of samples of fertilizers, and Part B describing detailed methods of analysis of fertilizers.

Schedule III encompasses four parts namely, Part-A, Part-B, Part-C and Part-D. While Part-A contains specifications of different biofertilizers, Part-B contains tolerance limits of biofertilizers, Part-C describes the procedures for drawal of sample of biofertilizers, Part-D describes the methods of analysis of biofertilizers. Schedule IV also encompasses four parts. Part-A contains specifications of organic fertilizers, Part-B contains tolerance limits of organic fertilizers, Part-C describes the procedures for drawal of sample of organic fertilizers, and Part-D describes the methods of analysis of organic fertilizers. Schedule V also contains of four parts. Part-A contains specifications of non-edible de-oiled cake fertilizers, Part-B contains tolerance limits of non-edible de-oiled cake fertilizers, Part-C describes the procedures for drawal of sample of non-edible de-oiled cake fertilizers, and Part-D describes the methods of analysis of non-edible de-oiled cake fertilizers.

14.1 INTRODUCTION

India is conferred with a varied agro-climatic condition which are highly favourable for growing a large number of horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, root tubers, ornamental, aromatic plants, medicinal herbs, spices and plantation crops like coconut, areca nut, cashew and cocoa (Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, GOI, 2008). India is next only to China in area and production of vegetables and occupies prime position in the production of caulif lower, second in onion and third in cabbage in the world. After achieving food security, it is being increasingly felt that India needs to achieve nutritional security for betterment of its population. In achieving nutritional security fruits and vegetables play an important role (Ganeshmurthy et al.2011). Although we have achieved good production levels of fruits and vegetables, the present production of fruits and vegetables may not be enough to meet out the demand. To feed the ever-increasing population in a sustainable way a tremendous effort will have to be made to increase the production of fruits and vegetables both horizontally and vertically through a rational and balanced use of production inputs, specially the mineral fertilizers. Soil fertility is a key factor for successful crop production, and it is a measure of capacity of soil to supply plant nutrients. The importance of soil fertility and fertilizer management is being increasingly recognized in all countries recently to meet the demand for food and other agricultural raw materials. Intensive use of fertilizer, intensive cropping with high yielding cultivars have increased the food production and reduced the food shortage, but it has also brought in numerous problems of soil fertility, soil and water pollution. On the other hand, fast depletion of nutrients due to over exploitation, a wide-spread deficiency of N, P, K and S coupled with micro-nutrients deficiencies especially Zn and boron has been noticed in many soils. Further deforestation, shifting cultivation, burning of trees, bushes, grasses and cow dung, soil erosion, soil degradation, nutrient losses, excessive fertilizer application, leaching losses etc., have aggravated the depletion of soil fertility status. It is being realized that the future of Indian agriculture is closely related to scientific management of soil fertility along with judicious and efficient use of fertilizers. Soil fertility and nutrient management is one of the important factors that have a direct impact on crop yield and quality. Soil test reports help in determining soil organic matter, pH, electrical conductivity, cation exchange capacity, and levels of important macronutrients (phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium) and micronutrients (boron, zinc, etc.). These reports also help estimating lime or sulphur application rates to increase or reduce soil pH, respectively. Maintaining a soil pH between 6.0 and 7.0 is recommended for most crop rotations that include vegetable crops.