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6.1 Hal for Land Preparation: This plough is constructed from Babool, sal, sisham wood, and mild steel. The body and handle are made from one piece, with a separate shoe. It is operated by one pair of bullocks with a yoke, weighs 48 lbs, and can cover 0.8 to 1 acre per day. It works to an average depth and width of 5 and 6 inches in alluvial soils, with a draught requirement of 185 lbs. It is used by 100% of the farming community in Meerut, Uttar Pradesh. (ICAR, 1960)

6.2 Wetland Plough (Dammu Nagali) for Land Preparation: This plough is made from Babool, palmyra, and mild steel, weighing 30-40 kg. Operated by two bullocks and one man, it is attached to the yoke with ropes for puddling rice fields, covering half an acre per day. It has a draught of 200-220 kg and ploughs to a depth of 4-5 inches and width of 5-6 inches in black and red soils. Repairable locally, its annual maintenance costs range from Rs 0.5 to 1.0, with an operational cost of Rs 25 per hectare. It is widely used in the coastal belt of Andhra Pradesh (Guntur and West Godavari). (ICAR, 1960).

IKS stands for Indigenous Knowledge Systems. When applied to pest and disease management in agriculture, IKS refers to the traditional and local knowledge systems developed by communities over generations to deal with agricultural challenges, including pests and diseases.

5.1 Key Aspects of IKS for Pest and Disease Management

1. Traditional Practices: Indigenous communities often have developed practices based on observation and experience to control pests and diseases. These may include specific plant combinations, crop rotations, or timing of planting to minimize pest damage.

2. Natural Remedies: IKS often includes knowledge of natural substances and plants that have pesticidal or medicinal properties. Examples include the use of neem, garlic, chilli, or certain plant extracts to deter pests or control diseases.

3. Cultural Practices: Traditional farming practices may include rituals or timing of activities that are believed to influence pest and disease outbreaks. For instance, planting during specific lunar phases or following certain cultural calendars.

4. Biological Control: Indigenous knowledge may also involve the use of natural enemies of pests, such as predators or parasites, to manage pest populations. This aligns with modern biological control principles.

5. Crop Diversity: Traditional farming systems often promote crop diversity, which can help naturally manage pest and disease pressures by reducing monoculture effects and providing habitats for beneficial organisms.

Seed treatment refers to the application of chemical or biological substances to seeds before planting. This process is designed to protect seeds from diseases, pests, and other adverse conditions that may affect germination and early growth and can improve overall crop yield and quality. Seed treatment can involve the use of fungicides, insecticides, bactericides, and other agents that help improve seed health and vigor. Seed treatment is a crucial step in ensuring healthy crop production. By investing in seed treatment, farmers can achieve better crop establishment and reduce the need for subsequent interventions, leading to more sustainable and cost-effective agricultural practices.

4.1 Importance of Seed Treatment

1. Disease Control: Seed treatment helps to protect seeds and seedlings from soil-borne and seed-borne pathogens, reducing the risk of diseases that can impair seed germination and seedling growth.

2. Pest Protection: Treated seeds are less likely to be damaged by insects and other pests that may be present in the soil. This protection can lead to higher seed survival rates and better crop establishment.

3. Improved Germination: By reducing the incidence of diseases and pests, seed treatment can enhance the germination rate and uniformity of seedlings, leading to more robust and consistent crop stands.

4. Nutrient Provision: Some seed treatments include nutrients or growth promoters that help improve seedling vigor and early development, ensuring that young plants have a better start.

5. Resistance to Environmental Stress: Seed treatments can help seeds withstand adverse environmental conditions such as drought, salinity, and temperature fluctuations, improving the overall resilience of the crop.

Soil fertility management refers to the practices and techniques used to maintain and improve the fertility of soil. Soil fertility is crucial for agriculture because it determines the soil's ability to provide essential nutrients to plants, support their growth, and sustain productivity over time. Effective soil fertility management aims to optimize soil health and productivity while minimizing environmental impacts.

3.1 Key Aspects of Soil Fertility Management Include

1. Nutrient Management: This involves supplying essential nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, etc.) to the soil through organic or synthetic fertilizers to meet the needs of crops.

2. Soil Amendments: Adding organic matter (such as compost or manure) or other amendments (like lime or gypsum) to improve soil structure, water retention, and nutrient availability.

3. Crop Rotation and Diversification: Rotating crops and diversifying plant species can help manage nutrient depletion and improve soil health by reducing pest and disease pressures.

4. Conservation Tillage: Minimizing soil disturbance through reduced tillage or no-till practices helps preserve soil structure, reduce erosion, and maintain organic matter content.

5. Cover Cropping: Planting cover crops during fallow periods or between main crops helps prevent soil erosion, improve nutrient cycling, and enhance soil fertility.

Soil is a loose surface material that provides water, nutrients, and structural support to agricultural plants. It is made up of 45% minerals, 5% organic components, 25% air, and 25% water. Our soils are said to be the source of 95% of the food we eat, either directly or indirectly.

The basis of the food chain is healthy soil. Our soils are the foundation of agriculture and the growing media for almost all plants that provide food. Good crops come from good soils, and healthy crops feed people and other animals. Food quantity and quality are, in fact, closely related to soil quality.

A healthy soil is a dynamic, living ecosystem. It is packed with both microscopic and larger organisms that carry out a multitude of essential tasks, such as nutrient cycling—the process of turning dead and decaying matter and minerals into plant nutrients controlling plant diseases and insect and weed pests, enhancing soil structure, which has a positive impact on the soil's ability to hold water and nutrients, and ultimately increasing crop productivity. Because healthy soil retains or increases its carbon content, it also helps to mitigate climate change.

Traditional agricultural practices have been an integral part of food production in India since ages. These practices have the potential to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change with spatial and sequential diversity (Patel et al., 2020). Traditional Agriculture can be defined as a primitive style of farming that involves the intensive use of indigenous knowledge, traditional tools, natural resources, organic fertilizer and cultural beliefs of the farmers (Abeysekara et al., 2021). It is noteworthy that it is still used by about 50% of the world population. Traditional agriculture can be defined as a set of knowledge- practice-trust nexus which has developed by its adaptive nature and passes on to the next generation through a cultural transmission that explains the relationship between living beings with their environment (Berkes et al., 2000).

The pandemic in 2019-2022 spread swiftly and became global in no time, caused by SARS-CoV-2. Vaccines were rapidly developed against the virus to restore public health and save global economy. Vaccines for immunisation drives were developed in a year of the pandemic becoming global and approved for ‘emergency use’ following expeditious development protocols. Vaccine development employed numerous nucleic acid, adenovirus and protein-based state-of-art molecular platforms, alongside the conventional attenuated and inactivated virus approaches. The majority of the attempts were successful and approved for use. All the approved vaccines were found safe and effective as per Phase I through Phase III clinical trials’ results. Mass immunisation drives demonstrably led to reduced hospitalisation, low disease severity and less mortality. Yet, there were initial vaccination hesitation across the world due to associated safety concerns about its possible long-term negative consequences. A part of it was attributed to technical reasons (as clinical trials were not fully complete with sturdy and convincing outcomes), and a majority was due to the misinformation that floated on the social media and other digital communications. Vaccine deployment across the globe was far from being equitable. Thus, immunisation was rapid in higher income (developed) nations with access to innovative advanced vaccines while low immunisation rates were seen in the low- and medium-income countries accessing majorly the vaccines based on simple technology. Given the scale and spread of the pandemic, scaled-up vaccine production and equitable distribution to limit viral spread and improve global health and socioeconomy were critical. This chapter attempts to dissect these scenarios and lessons learnt from these to prepare better for any such pandemic in future.

The world turned into a grossly inhabitable during the infamous COVID-19 pandemic, with community health issues everywhere. Each one felt unsafe if other earthly inhabitants were, be it humans or other living beings. Onset of SARS CoV-2 set a ‘new normal’ world order. The ever-evolving and mutating SARS CoV-2 variants extended the pandemic wave after wave thereby complicating the situation, pushing the global healthcare system to its limits and exposing its underbelly. The continually evolving variants were more aggressively transmissive and infective. As the world still reels under tremendous healthcare pressure, other infectious diseases are emerging as are identified by the World Health Organisation (WHO), creating international health emergency situations. The situation becomes alarming with the increasing zoonotic (spillover) and reverse zoonotic (spillback) factors being more proactive in the disease spread. There is a greater need to vaccinate not only humans but also animals, especially the domesticated ones and known reservoirs/carriers. Vaccines must be developed on priority and equitably distributed as the first step to counter a pandemic or potential pandemic. Vaccination is self-limiting due to increasing reported breakthrough infection cases. A strong link of the environmental health to the overall global health needs to be acknowledged, and due diligent measures taken. Hence, there is a strong need of the One Health approach as a 360° solution, and follow it up at global-scale both in letter and spirit. This chapter discusses spillover and spillback of diseases like SARS-CoV-2 and Mpox as case examples, the mitigation strategies and the need for workable One Health models, and challenges and measures to counter future outbreaks. It stresses on foolproof vaccination strategies across to catalyse individual and herd immunities for universal wellbeing.

The world turned into a grossly inhabitable during the infamous COVID-19 pandemic, with community health issues everywhere. Each one felt unsafe if other earthly inhabitants were, be it humans or other living beings. Onset of SARS CoV-2 set a ‘new normal’ world order. The ever-evolving and mutating SARS CoV-2 variants extended the pandemic wave after wave thereby complicating the situation, pushing the global healthcare system to its limits and exposing its underbelly. The continually evolving variants were more aggressively transmissive and infective. As the world still reels under tremendous healthcare pressure, other infectious diseases are emerging as are identified by the World Health Organisation (WHO), creating international health emergency situations. The situation becomes alarming with the increasing zoonotic (spillover) and reverse zoonotic (spillback) factors being more proactive in the disease spread. There is a greater need to vaccinate not only humans but also animals, especially the domesticated ones and known reservoirs/carriers. Vaccines must be developed on priority and equitably distributed as the first step to counter a pandemic or potential pandemic. Vaccination is self-limiting due to increasing reported breakthrough infection cases. A strong link of the environmental health to the overall global health needs to be acknowledged, and due diligent measures taken. Hence, there is a strong need of the One Health approach as a 360° solution, and follow it up at global-scale both in letter and spirit. This chapter discusses spillover and spillback of diseases like SARS-CoV-2 and Mpox as case examples, the mitigation strategies and the need for workable One Health models, and challenges and measures to counter future outbreaks. It stresses on foolproof vaccination strategies across to catalyse individual and herd immunities for universal wellbeing.

Recent pandemic (COVID-19) impacted global economy significantly and increased economic disparity. Vaccines are significantly beneficial and cost effective compared to other public healthcare preventives. Vaccines reduce hospitalisation, treatment costs and associated morbidity and mortality. Although COVID-19 vaccination and natural viral infection protected against reinfection, it waned in part due to emerging novel variants. Waning immunity from vaccine and natural infection are documented, and it was more so in severe hospitalised COVID-19. Many countries developed their own vaccines successfully to counter as COVID-19 became global. Vaccines needed updates to effectively fight COVID-19 as the wild strain constantly mutated. Among the intrinsic, perinatal, extrinsic, environmental, behavioural and nutritional aspects, the host factors included antibiotics usage pattern, sleep habits, physical activities, smoking habit and alcohol intake. Similarly, the external factors influencing vaccine response included childhood vaccination, early-age infections, nutrient supplements soon after birth, and breastfeeding pattern. Vaccination time also affected the efficacy. Forenoon vaccination developed less breakthrough infection compared to afternoon or evening vaccination due to varying immunological responses like immune cell functions, recruitment and transport, owing to circadian rhythm. Although vaccination side-effects are there, almost all vaccines are reportedly safe, effective and prevented serious illness, hospitalisation and death. Vaccine usually takes two weeks to manifest, and it prevented 14·4–19.8 million pandemic fatalities globally in 185 nations in a single year during December 2020 and December 2021. It was necessary that the boosters alongside vaccines enhanced immunological effects and provided extended protection. Thus, vaccine and booster design and development, dosing, targeted immunisation, cost-efficacy and vaccine acceptance are challenges to address. Government, not-for-profit organisations, health agencies and researchers may systematically analyse, justify and validate vaccine R&D and vaccinations economics. This chapter comprehends biological, commercial and economic benefits and impacts of booster dose in vaccination drives, and the roadmap ahead.

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that caused the global COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) pandemic has claimed a considerable number of lives worldwide. The unanticipated global spread of SARS CoV-2 has resulted in serious issues within the medical systems and healthcare facilities. Creating efficient vaccines against the virus, even after all of efforts, has been on high priority and is time-taking due to the frequent mutations. A critical stage in vaccine development is figuring out the potential antigen. As a ground breaking technique introduced in 2000, Reverse vaccinology (RV) reduces the required time considerably from 5–15 years to 1–2 years in identifying antigens. Various RV tools are powered by big-data analytics, artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) techniques. AI and ML models have demonstrated their potentials in expediting the identification and refinement of novel antivirals or potent vaccination candidates. By utilising datasets available through several dedicated databases, it is more beneficial in identifying current medications that inhibit the human Coronavirus and next-gen healthcare possibilities.

Constantly emerging and reemerging vaccine-preventable infectious diseases recently around the globe challenged the health infrastructure and has been a critical concern for the medical fraternity. There are 21 other neglected tropical diseases, as classified and recently updated by the World Health Organisation, many of which are seemingly vaccine-preventable. The unprecedented scenario that the world encountered during the recent COVID-19 pandemic was also a ‘silver lining in the dark cloud’ for primarily the vaccinologists. The scientific world witnessed stupendous developments in vaccine development. One such instance was the cutting-edge mRNA vaccine development platform. Once a vaccine is successfully designed, the next step is scaling it up in a milieu that is conducive for its mass production. There are numerous ways to achieve it, from biological system (animal models like the chick embryo, mouse cell-lines, suspension-cultured tobacco cells) to the non-biological (bioreactor) settings. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the intricacies in vaccine development, from designing to large-scale manufacturing (mass production). It delves into key scientific guiding principles behind developing and formulating vaccines, adopting both the traditional and emerging bioprocessing and bioseparation engineering and technology. It also explores the technical and management challenges faced before and during scaling up, including maintaining product efficacy, ensuring high quality for human administration, and navigating regulatory landscapes, among others. The chapter offers a holistic understanding of bioprocessing continuum, to educate and inform the research (academia) and development (bioindustry) community for more promising and effective strategies in the future to optimise vaccine production, thus contributing to the global public healthcare initiatives.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccine was the first authorised vaccine developed using mRNA vaccine production technology, against SARS-CoV-2. Well accepted by the population, it proved to be a major life saving intervention during the COVID-19 pandemic. This article discusses the mRNA vaccine technology and its major advantages, and provides an update on the various ongoing and completed clinical trials on the leading mRNA vaccines against various viral diseases. It also delves into the prospects and the technical challenges associated with the manufacturing of mRNA vaccine and the issues with its deployment in the low- and middle-income countries around the world. Despite the already available classical vaccine candidates, the persistent interest and continuous research in mRNA vaccine technology and the related storage, immunogenicity and lipid nanoparticles delivery aspects have helped in expanding and upgrading the vaccinology arsenals to counter diseases. The technology holds promises in opening new vistas to protect against infectious diseases and the associated complications, where safe and effective immunisations are currently lacking. Furthermore, as mRNA vaccines evolve, they offer new hope against neglected and reemerging diseases like rabies, Zika, and Nipah viruses. The flexibility and rapid adaptability of this platform underscore its potential to address unmet medical needs, laying the groundwork for universal and multi-pathogen vaccines, vital in averting future pandemics. Enhanced by advancements in nanotechnology and innovative delivery systems, mRNA vaccines are poised to revolutionise infectious disease prevention, cancer treatment, and genetic disorders, marking a new era in vaccinology and offering hope for global health challenges through continued investment in research and infrastructure.

The process of vaccine development involves numerous stages from research, discovery, innovation, formulation, testing, mass production, logistics, deployment and administering the vaccine to the target population. The COVID-19 pandemic expedited the endeavour to develop vaccine worldwide that is unparalleled in history. In addition to the steps that were similar during the usual vaccine development process, it called for stronger collaborative teamwork with stricter deadlines during the pandemic due to the emergency situation that built up everywhere (in its spread as well as severity). Research was expedited, potential candidate vaccines were discovered and the proofs of concept were designed that paved the way for pre-clinical efficacy testing. Multiple-step clinical trials to ascertain that the vaccines were effective and safe at least for ‘emergency use’ in human subjects were carried out swiftly. The emergency usage regulatory approval and recommending the usage pattern involved accelerated review procedures. It immediately followed rapid scaling-up for increased production in order to meet the need to save as many human lives as possible across the globe. The approved vaccines were simultaneously evaluated for safety through dedicated pharmacovigilance systems. The future of vaccine development shall also focus on improving the worldwide access to vaccines, managing the virus variants and streamlining mass vaccination campaigns. Comprehending the research, development and administration phases to create and implement life saving vaccinations within the regulatory framework amid international health emergencies as encountered during the COVID-19 pandemic and the enormous collective endeavours are highlighted in this chapter.

This chapter attempts to travel the timeline and dissect historical perspectives of vaccination. Vaccine that protects and shields from numerous dangerous diseases (vaccine-preventable diseases; VPD) is an important area of research and development. Considering that vaccine has been very useful in successfully combating numerous infectious diseases in the past 200 years, they are considered as a historical turning point in the field of public health and medicines. Critical illnesses like the smallpox and wild polio (virus types 2 and 3) have mostly been eradicated as a result of mass immunisation programmes worldwide. Research, collaboration and widespread vaccination campaigns were necessary in vaccination efforts to control and ultimately eradicate infectious diseases. Biotechnological research has progressed to a level where producing recombinant vaccines is feasible. Research and development efforts on therapeutic vaccines are ongoing. Vaccine research in recombinant DNA/RNA technologies and therapeutic vaccinations for specific illnesses seem to be the future. This article offers a comprehensive history of vaccination since inception to its present forms, with future projections. Beginning with the variolation techniques in the early 17th century, it discusses the important turn of events from its discovery to the continued advancements and inventions till the covid-19 vaccine. Alongside the detailed core aspect, the chapter also describes the benefits of the one health approach with the zoonotic diseases in focus.

The concentration of a true solution refers to the amount of solute present in a given quantity of solvent or solution. It is an important property because it determines the solution’s behavior in chemical reactions, its physical proper ties (such as boiling and freezing points), and its utility in various applications. Concentration can be expressed in several ways, depending on the context and the precision required.

Methods to Express Concentration of a True Solution

1. Molarity (M)

• Definition: Molarity is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter (1,000 mL) of solution.

Volumetric Analysis Precautions

1. Use Clean Glassware: Ensure all glassware, such as burettes, pipettes, and volumetric flasks, is thoroughly cleaned and rinsed with distilled water to avoid contamination and ensure accurate measurements.

2. Clean Glassware Properly: Before use, all glass apparatus should be thoroughly cleaned with a cleansing mixture of potassium dichromate (K2 Cr2 O7 ) and concentrated sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ) to remove any residual contaminants. After cleaning, rinse the glassware thoroughly with distilled water to ensure no traces of the cleansing mixture remain.

3. Proper Calibration: Calibrate all measuring instruments, including burettes, pipettes, and balances, before use to maintain accuracy in measurements.

4. Avoid Parallax Error: When reading the meniscus level in a burette or volumetric flask, ensure the eye is at the same level as the meniscus to prevent parallax error.

5. Use Correct Indicators: Choose the appropriate indicator for the titration based on the type of reaction and the pH range of the endpoint to ensure precise determination of the endpoint.

Buffers

Bronsted and Lowry defined acids as substances which are able to donate protons, and bases as substances which accept protons.

In the above example, BH is an acid because it donates proton and B– is an anion liberated by the deprotonation of the acid. B– behaves like a base, so it is called conjugate base.

Acids can be classified into strong acids and weak acids.

1. Strong acids get dissociated almost completely, e.g., hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid. This is because the conjugate bases of these acids are very weak (have less affinity for the proton).

2. Weak acids get dissociated partially, e.g., acetic acid, carbonic acid. This happens because the conjugate bases of these acids are strong (have greater affinity for proton). Since the dissociation of the weak acids is partial, the equilibrium constant for the dissociation reaction of the weak acid (BH) can be written as follows:

Analytical Reagents

Chemical reagents are supplied in different grades and each grade has a distinct purpose and range of uses. The purest grade is analytical reagent (AR), the second is laboratory reagent (LR), the third is guaranteed reagent (GR) and fourth is technical grade. Second and third form of reagents have a lot of impurities. Therefore, for the determination of micronutrients, AR grade reagents should be used.

Distilled Water

Distilled water is always used in chemical analysis. The quality of distilled water varies from single distilled water to double or triple distilled water depending upon the requirement of analytical technique(s) e.g. double distilled water (glass distilled) is always recommended for micro nutrient and heavy metal analysis.

Leaf Relative Water Content (RWC) is a key indicator of plant water status and is used to assess water stress, physiological health, and the efficiency of water use in plants. It reflects the amount of water in the leaf relative to its maximum water capacity and is a useful measure in plant physiology and stress studies.

Materials and Equipment

• Fresh leaf samples

• Analytical balance

• Oven or drying equipment

• Desiccator

• Caliper or ruler

• Distilled water

• Petri dishes or similar containers

• Weighing boats or paper