eChapters

Hydraulic conductivity is an important soil property that determines the ability of a soil to transmit water. A method of measuring hydraulic conductivity of saturated soil using undisturbed soil core is described in this exercise.

Principle

Flow of water across a soil layer or a sample of known dimension can be best described by Darcy’s law expressed as:

1. Botanical name: Buchanania lanzan spreng.

2. Family: Anacardiaceae

3. Common Name: Cuddapah almond , Chironji

4. Name in Indian languages: Chironji (Hindi), Piyal (Assami), Chironji (Bengali), Kole Maavu (Kannada), Charam (Tamil), Mungapera (Malayalam).

5. Description

It is an excellent fruit tree for agro forestry and social forestry. This species is found in dry deciduous forest throughout the country excluding eastern Himalayan forests . The flesh of ripe fruit is very palatable and is largely eaten raw or roasted and the oily kernels are the most important part and are used in preparation of puddings. Mesocarp of fruit is edible and cherished by children. Very good juice may be prepared from the pulp of chironji fruits.

The chi square is a continuous distribution based on the assumption that the ul- timate class frequency is not less than 5 otherwise the value of χ₂ will be over- estimated and may cause too many rejections of null hypothesis. Therefore, to maintain the continuity of χ₂ and to draw the correct inference in 2×2 we apply a correction which is known as Yates’s correction for continuity.

Principle

When water is ponded inside the concentric metallic rings driven into the soil, the rate of recession (fall) of the water level, or the rate of water withdrawn from a supply source used to maintain a constant head of water on the soil surface, gives the infiltration rate of the soil.

During infiltration of water into the soil, appreciable lateral movement of water may also occur. To avoid the error due to this lateral movement, two concentric rings are used. Equal heights of water are to be maintained in both the rings. The infiltration is measured in the inner ring only. The rate of water intake per unit area varies markedly with the size of the rings and the depth of the soil to which they are driven into. Infiltration rate studies are preceded by the profile, initial soil moisture and any other problems of the region in which the soil is located.

Plant parasitic nematodes favour the establishment of secondary pathogens viz., fungi, bacteria, virus etc. The nematodes alter the host in such a way that the host tissue becomes suitable for colonization by the secondary pathogens. Even though the nematodes themselves are capable of causing considerable damage to the crops, their association with other organisms aggravate the disease.

Introduction

The balance between soil organic matter (SOM) levels and nutrient cycling are the key to sustained productivity of agricultural system. Both are closely related through microbially driven mobilisation/immobilisation processes. Three major models have been recognised for C pool viz. Labile C, non-labile C and recalcitrant. The models have been characterised on the bases of their half-life period. The labile C includes oxidisable C (with KMnO4), microbial biomass C (soil carbohydrates) and soil fauna exudates (polysaccharides). Its half-life period is from a few hours to a few days. The non-labile C includes aggregate C and its turn over time is from a few months to a few years while the recalcitrant (stabilised C) includes humic fractions and charcoal C having the turn over time of hundred years. Thus fractionation of SOM is carried out on the bases of humic substances, dissolved organic C, natural C13 abundance, microbial biomass C and ease of oxidation of C. The latter method provides qualitative characterisation of soil C.

A. Intestinal protozoa Fresh faeces must be used as a sample. The sample must be examined immediately and without refrigeration. Methods of examination 1. Direct smear examination A thin smear of faeces mixed with either water or normal saline (recommended for Trophozoites since they stay intact and motile longer). Select blood-tinged mucus or tiny tissue bits if the faeces are dysenteric. One to two percent of an aqueous eosin solution can be used in place of saline or water, but the oocyst still resist the stain. The viability is examined using the eosin solution. It is possible to employ an iodine solution (which kills protozoa), which allows for the identification and differentiation of the protozoa. It is possible

Puberty • It is the age at which sexual organs are functionally developed and gonads start responding to GnRH to start steroidogenesis and spermatogenesis. Animal at puberty develops secondary sexual characters with proper libido. • At puberty, the bull is able to produce 50 million spermatozoa with 10% progressive motility in 1st seminal ejaculates. It should be 100 million spermatozoa with 10% progressive motility in 1st seminal ejaculate in case of stallion. • At puberty, gonadotrophic cells are functionally developed in the mature pituitary tends to gonadal maturation. The steroidogenesis starts properly which leads to the development of genital organs and secondary sexual characters.

We visited The Model Sea Farm Project under the Royal Initiative of Her Majesty Queen Sirikit on 10/10/2023 at 1 pm It is a government farm located at Phetchaburi Coastal Aquaculture Research and Development Center. The purpose of the visit was to learn more about seaweed production and zero waste aquaculture system.

1) Sea ranching

Species used for sea ranching was Banana shrimp (Fenneropenaeus merguiensis). 2 months old shrimps were collected from tank and used for ranching

Introduction

The peripartum period, spanning from 3 weeks pre-calving to 3 weeks post calving, is a critical phase in a cow’s life. During this time, cows are susceptible to various diseases that can significantly impact their health, productivity and reproductive performance. Changes in metabolism and lack of optimum immunity have been closely associated with most of the transition period diseases. Hormonal changes in the early lactation results in drain in energy and nutrients rendering the animal in some degree of negative energy balance. Increased lipid mobilization in transition period has its role in fatty liver and ketosis directly.Metabolic stress in peripartum cows refers to the physiological changes that occur around calving, affecting energy and nutrient balance.

Nutritional and metabolic disorders in livestock and poultry arise from imbalances in nutrient intake, environmental factors, or the inability of the body to metabolize nutrients properly. These disorders impact animal health, productivity, and overall economic performance. Early identification and proper management are critical to mitigating their effects.
Nutritional and metabolic disorders can be broadly categorized as:
1. Disorders caused by deficiencies or excesses of nutrients
2. Disorders related to imbalances in energy, protein, or minerals
3. Disorders resulting from inadequate metabolic adaptations to physiological or environmental changes
Common nutritional and metabolic disorders in livestock include:
A. Energy and protein-related disorders
1. Ketosis (Acetonemia) in dairy cattle
Cause: Negative energy balance during early lactation, leading to fat mobilization and ketone body accumulation.
Symptoms: Reduced milk production, weight loss, acetone-like breath, and decreased appetite. Management
Increase energy density in diets with concentrates and high-quality forages.
Supplement with propylene glycol or glucose precursors.
Monitor body condition scores to prevent over-conditioning during the dry period.

When a particle revolves around an axis, a force is developed and acts away from the axis of rotation. This force is called centrifugal force. A particle suspended in a medium takes some time to sediment, which depends upon the size, molecular weight, and viscosity or density of the medium under normal “g” (gravity). To speed up the process of sedimentation, the external field of force is allowed to act on the particle which depends also on the distance of the particle from the axis of rotation in addition to the other factors.

India is home of 16.7 % of the world population living in just 2.4 % of the worlds total land area. The decennial increase in population (1991-2001) has been 18.1 equivalents to the total population of Canada, France and Germany. The population in this century has 1.6 billion by 1960.

For the laboratory diagnosis of the parasitic infections, it is essential to examine various excretory-secretory products, viz., faeces, urine and nasal discharges as  examination of such material is essential for clinical diagnosis. It is extremely rare to get an animal completely free from parasites and at the same time all animals may not show signs of disease. Since, most of the important helminths and coccidia inhabit intestinal tract, therefore, clinical diagnosis of gut dwelling helminths and coccidia depends mainly on identification of ova/oocyst in faecal samples.

Principle
When a sample of feed, which is free from moisture, is extracted continuously with fat solvent like petroleum ether, the vapour from the ether boiling in the flask passes into the condenser where it condenses and drops back on the sample which dissolves ether soluble materials such as fat, sterols, lecithin, resins and volatile oils in the extraction flask. The extract is termed as crude fat or ether extract (EE) because it also contains other fat like substances in addition to true fat.

Equipment/glass wares
    1.     Analytical balance
    2.     Beaker
    3.     Cotton wool
    4.     Dessicator
    5.     Extraction thimble
    6.     Hot air oven
    7.     Oil flask (150-250 ml)

1. INTRODUCTION

Increasingly, in recent years, we hear of new technologies for the production of clean energy or, as they say now in common usage, from renewable energy sources, there are many sources of renewable energy, but certainly the ones that deserve special attention are those derived from algae. Today, thanks to innovative systems called photobioreactors, you have a way to start producing, though unfortunately still a small part, the amount of clean energy from algae and various biological processes that develop. The photobioreactor is one of the most innovative systems of the 21st century, and is paving the way for a new concept of energy utilization , although the fossil fuel (oil of course) continues to lead the way, even if you are aware of the drastic and continuous decrease the world’s resources. Although still under investigation, but there are many aspects that allow, thanks to special engineering studies , already now create systems suitable for the production of energy directly from algae , while biofuels obtained from the latter, there are several studies and tests , which aim to further lower production costs, in order to bring them at par or even below the threshold of current fossil fuels. In addition, these photo bioreactors, allow to produce, under controlled conditions, products and raw materials from the algae for food and non-food market, often providing a viable substitute, nutritious and natural, to all those raw materials that are harmful to human health and animals, especially in the food and health sectors.

Infiltration rate refers to the volume of water entering into the soil per unit area in the unit time, when the soil is subjected to a shallow depth of ponding at the surface. Under continued ponding, the high infiltration rate in the beginning decreases to a constant value, known as final infiltration rate. The reduction in infiltration rate is due to combined effects of reduced hydraulic gradients, dispersion of aggregates, blocking of pores, cracks and channels, and swelling of colloids. Numerous techniques for measurement of infiltration rate have been developed to meet specific needs but use of double-ring infiltrometer has given consistent result in a variety of conditions.

Principle

In double-ring infiltrometer method, a small representative area in the field is bounded by two concentric metal rings (Figure 17.1) which permit impounding of water over the soil within the rings. The rate fall of surface of water ponded on the soil in the inner ring is taken as the rate of water intake or infiltration rate. In the cropped field, infiltration rate can be measured only within the rows and for which the diameter of the cylinders may be changed to meet the specific needs. The measurements under wetland conditions should be made from a distance of about 40-50 cm to avoid pressure effects.

1. Botanical name : Calligonum polygonoides L.

2. Family : Polygonaceae

3. Common Name : Phog

4. Name in Indian languages: Phog (Hindi), Phog(Punjabi), Balanja, Berwaja (Afghanistan).

5. Description

Phog (Calligonum polygonoides L.) is a under-utilized shrub, dominantly found in arid and semi-arid region of Thar Desert. It is a typical sand dune plant, found in whole of arid zone. It is a slow growing, branching shrub. It has a massive network of underground root which works as effective ‘sand binder’ and thus preventing erosion and stabilizing sand dunes. It grows well in absence of any type of vegetation and dominant biomass producer of the sandy areas of the desert. It is very hardy and being capable of growing under adverse conditions of soil and moisture. It is frost hardy. It is becoming increasingly rare due to the demand for its roots, overgrazing and sand mining.

Aim

To measure the irrigation water by using orifice

Orifices

An orifice is an opening in a bulk head with closed perimeter usually circular or rectangular cross-section through which water flows. For measurement of water, orifices are fabricated by making an accurate cut of proper size and shape in a mild steel sheet, aluminum plate etc. Proper machining is done to have a sharp edge through which water flows (Fig.60.1).

Free discharge

If the downstream water level is lower than the bottom of the orifice opening, the water jet discharges freely into the air and then it is said to be free discharge. The depth of water on the upstream side of the orifice that causes the flow is called the head. The orifice flow formulae can be applied only when the orifice flows fully.

Introduction

Organic matter in sediment consists of carbon and nutrients in the form of carbohydrates, proteins, fats and nucleic acids. Bacteria quickly eat the less resistant molecules, such as nucleic acids and many of the proteins. Sediment organic matter is derived from plant/animal detritus, bacteria or plankton formed in situ. Total organic carbon refers to the amount of organic matter preserved within sediment.

Materials

1. Sample
2. Crucibles
3. Furnace

Procedure

Take 1.0 g of sample in a crucible whose empty weight is already recorded. Place this crucible in a furnace. Switch on the furnace and set the temperature at 550°C. Keep the samples for 3 hours