eChapters

The essential database for all skin diseases consists skin scrapings. Skin scrapings fall into two main categories: superficial and deep. Superficial scrapings give information from the epidermis’s surface without causing capillary bleeding. Capillary haemorrhage is a sign that the sampling was deep enough to gather material from the hair follicle. Deep skin scrapings are used for this purpose. The main purpose of skin scrapings is to detect the presence or absence of mites. A skin-scraping spatula, which is a thin metal weighing spatula, is recommended for use while scraping the skin. These spatulas are safe and can be used again. Scrapings from active lesions at several places are to be submitted. Scraping from active lesions at several places is to be submitted. Generally, the periphery of the lesion contains more parasites than the centre. Skin scrapings are used to identify ectoparasites and fungal diseases.

Libido • It is the willingness & eagerness of male animal to mount and perform complete service. It is sexual desire or drive which is an innate character of male animals. • Libido and mating ability have no direct relation with fertility. Libido is not related directly to sperm production and semen quality. • The libido of an animal depends on androgenic steroid hormone. Vasectomy or cryptorchidism does not affect libido in male animals. • Animals have no or reduced libido that are castrated before puberty. If the animals, that know the copulation, are castrated after puberty, they display the copulation behaviour for longer period. • Reaction time – It is the time between the contact of a male animal with female animal to 1st false mount with erected penis. Reaction time is the good predictor of libido.

In Uttarakhand, majority of the population lives in rural areas and primarily depends on agriculture for their livelihood. In Uttarakhand, only 14.02% area is under cultivation. Out of total 7.66 lakh hectare cultivated area in the state, 4.21 lakh hectare area is rainfed i.e. more than 50 % of the cultivable area is rainfed. The average land holding is 0.68 ha that too is divided into many patches. Rainfed farming in Uttarakhand gets affected by frequent drought like situations and excessive rainfall. Food and nutritional security of people living in hill region depends more on favorable climatic conditions as agriculture and livestock farming are the main occupations. Prevailing low level of soil fertility and increased incidences of pest and disease occurrences has adversely affected the crop production and productivity in hills. Low agricultural productivity has emerged out as an important push factor for out migration of people from hill areas. Traditional hill agriculture is practiced on small and fragmented terraced fields with lack of irrigation facilities, which are uneconomical. Women constitute the main workforce in agriculture as large section of able bodied men have migrated from hills in search of livelihood. They also take care of the cattle, collect fuel wood and fodder from forests, often situated at considerable distance from the villages involving four to five hours of walking both ways, and do all household chores. Their life is an unending drudgery of hard work.

As a large population in the hill region of Uttarakhand depends on agriculture, the problem of malnutrition can be better addressed through nutrition sensitive agricultural interventions specifically designed for women in hills. Local nutritional needs can be met out locally by reviving traditional practices along with amalgamation of science and technology knowledge. Focusing on nutrition helps to build the resilience of rural households. Nutrition sensitive approach was promoted at local level with active participation of women who are mainly responsible for food security of the households.

Ber, Ziziphus mauritiana is indigenous to India and was called as poor man’s fruit earlier. But now it has become a good source of income to the orchardists, in the arid and semi-arid regions of the country, mainly with the development of new varieties. A number of insect pests (around 150) infest the ber tree but only few are the major ones, the description of which is provided below:

Fruit fly, Carpomya vesuviana Costa (Tephritidae: Diptera)

It is a major pest of ber in all the ber growing regions and proves as a bottleneck in its production and productivity. It is monophagous and develops only in fruits of Ziziphus spp. Most of the cultivated varieties are susceptible to this direct pest. The eggs are small, elongate, spindle shaped and creamy white. Maggots are creamy white (Plate 9a) and slightly smaller than maggots of other fruit flies. Pupae are barrel shaped and brown. Adults are smaller than housefly, brownish yellow with brown longitudinal stripes on the thorax. This fruit fly can be distinguished easily from other species due to distinctive pattern of black marks on the scutum and scutellum (Plate 9a). Wings are hyaline with four yellow cross bands.

This chapter introduces the principles of colouration and finishing of wool fibres and fabrics. It examines the relationship between keratin chemistry and dye uptake and discusses major dye classes used for wool. The chapter also covers temporary and permanent setting, milling, shrink-resist treatments and functional finishes. Processing conditions such as pH and temperature are considered in relation to colour uniformity and fibre protection. Modern approaches increasingly emphasize lower-water, lower-chemical and enzyme-assisted finishing routes to improve sustainability

Bougainvillea is relatively pest-free. Worms, aphids, and moths might be an issue. Sometimes it gets attacked by spiders which can be controlled by using miticide and by the fungus Phytophthora which is checked by spraying Blitox (copper oxychloride) (Sharma 1996, Banerji 2010). Although it is normally pest-free plants, but may suffer from worms, snails and aphids. The larvae of some Lepidoptera species also use them as food plants, for example the giant leopard moth (Hypercompe scribonia). Leaf spot disease caused by Cercosporidium bougainvillea has been reported in the U.S.A. (Sobers and Martinez 1966, Sobers and Seymour 1969). When compared to B. spectabilis, B. glabra has been reported to be resistant or only slightly susceptible to the leaf spot disease (Pal and Swarup 1974). Cercosporidium bougainvillea has been reported in Colombo by Pardo-Cardona (1998) and in Indonesia by Kobayashi and Oniki (1994). The disease can be controlled by spraying copper Carbendazim at the rate of 1 g/l at an interval of 10-15 days. Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum in bougainvillea has been reported in Italy (Polizzi et al., 2010). Bacterial leaf spot caused by Pseudomonas andropogonis has been reported in Brunei, Darussalam (Peregrine and Ahmad 1982, Sivapalan and Hamdan 1997) and U.S.A. (Walker 1991, Walker and Hodge 1991). This can be controlled by spraying copper oxychloride at the rate of 3 g/l at intervals of 10-15 days.

Grapevine stem girdler:  Sthenias grisator : Cerambycidae

This is a pest that can also survive on mango, rose, cocoa, coffee, almond, and mulberry. The ovipositing adult causes wilting of branches and then the entire vine. Adults are medium-sized, grey coloured beetles with a white spot at the center of each elytron. They are active at night.

Eggs are deposited in clusters of 2-4, underneath loose bark of girdled branches. Eggs are oval and enveloped in a white parchment like covering. Adults emerge out and start ovipositing individual eggs at a point in the vine in a circular fashion so that the vine dries up above this point. Egg period takes about 8 days. The grub has dark brown head and mouth has a pair of prominent mandibles, each with two teeth. The grub continues its life as a semi saprophyte and pupates in the same tunnel. A single generation can occupy one year.

14.1 What is Education

Education is a systematic attempt towards human learning. All learning is subjective and self related. It is neither literacy nor information. Knowledge can never be learned. Knowledge is the fruit of experience and experience is the sensation of the individual. Individual experience is the internal function and is the function of awareness and understanding. And, one of the processes of knowledge and raising awareness is to be able to identify and clarify our values. Now values in education are essential to help each one of us directly so that we may order our relationships to the environment that lies outside us. Once we are clear about values, we shall be better able to shift and control information of the natural world, make wise choices and decisions, and be creative in our mental processes.

Principle

When a sample of moisture and fat free feedstuff is boiled with dilute acid and then with dilute alkali, the soluble carbohydrates and proteins go into the solution and are extracted. The undissolved residue left behind represents cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and mineral matter. The cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin put together are called crude fibre (CF). When the residue after drying and weighing is ignited, the fibre being organic in nature is burnt whereas the ash or mineral matter is left over. The fibre is obtained by deducting the weight of ash from the weight of the dried residue. In simple way it can also be explained that the crude fibre is determined gravimetrically as part of the substance which is left when protein, soluble carbohydrate, fat, ash and water have been removed.

In feeding of simple stomached animals, the analysis of crude fibre content is very essential because the amount of crude fibre predicts the digestibility of the feedstuff. Higher the fibre content lesser will be the digestibility.

Definition

Humerus is long selender and has slight spiral twist.

Oblique type of fracture is most common in diaphyseal region.

It come under higher level of fracture.(Fig. No-1)

Appropriate method of fixation is by intramedullary pinning and modified thomas splint.

4.1 Determination of Specific Surface Area of Soil

Specific surface area of a soil is defined as surface area per unit weight of soil and is expressed as m² g^-1. The specific surface of soil greatly influences the physical and chemical properties such as retention of water at high suction, swelling, plasticity, soil strength, cation exchange capacity and availability of nutrients. The basic principle of determination of specific surface is based on the amount of gas or polar liquid required to form a monomolecular layer on the soild. Knowledge of molecular size (diameter) and the mass of the adsorbate enables one to calculate specific surface of the adsorbent.

Principle

Dyal and Hendricks (1950) introduced a method for estimating specific area based upon the adsorption of ethylene glycol (EG) to form a monomolecular layer over the entire soil surface. The method involves adding EG to pretreated soil or clay sample and evaporating the excess EG in an evacuated system. The quantity of EG retained at the moment the evaporating rate decreases is proportional to the surface area. Later on Carter et al. (1965) suggested the use of ethylene glycol monoethyl ether (EGME) having high vapour pressure at room temperature than EG for determining surface area of the layer silicate minerals and soils.

Soil aeration signifies the ability of a soil to supply oxygen to actively growing roots and soil organisms. Because of constant biological activity causing oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide evolution, the oxygen present in a soil pore or oxygen renewal by mass flow becomes inadequate to meet the plant demand. A continuous diffusion of oxygen from atmosphere to soil and to plant roots through the wetted pores plays an important role. The oxygen reaching plant roots has to diffuse not only through the gaseous phase in the soil pore and wetted pore neck but also through a water film that is present on the hydrated root surface.Lemon and Erickson (1952) suggested a platinum microelectrode method that simulates the field situation. In this method measurement of the rate of oxygen diffusing through the liquid phase to a reducing surface similar to the plant root.

Aim

To measure the irrigation water by using parshall flume

Construction of Parshall flume

Parshall flume is a water measuring device that can be used to measure water flowing in an open channel and intended primarily for use in irrigation. The flume consists of a converging inlet section, a throat section with straight parallel sides, and a diverging outlet section (Fig.61.1). The floor of the converging section is level with walls which converge in the direction of flow, towards the throat. The throat section constitutes the middle portion of the Parshall flume. The floor of the throat section is dips downward in the direction of flow, but the walls are parallel. The throat width specifies the dimensions of the parshall flume. The diverging outlet section of the flume has a floor which rises in the direction of flow. The walls become further separated in the direction of flow (diverge).The parshall flume can be constructed by G.I. sheet, aluminum sheet, M.S. sheet, brick masonry, reinforced concrete or timber. Flumes made of G.I. or aluminum sheets are easily portable. Brick masonry and concrete flumes are permanently constructed in the channels. Stilling wells should be constructed at the side to take measurements.

The algae associated with the plants belongs to the Order Trentepohliales (Ulvophyceae, Chlorophyta). These are filamentous green algae parasitic to higher plants, generally causing minor diseases characterized by negligible leaf spots, but on certain crops, in moist environments, these algal diseases can cause economic injury to plant leaves, fruits, and stems (Nelson, 2008).

Introduction

Sugars are commonly found in the form of biopolymers. Cellulose, a biopolymer of glucose is the predominant constituent of plant tissues, and may be shortly described as the structural bases of vegetable world. In this case, the glucose moieties are strung together by P-glycosidase linkages, which form the linear chain, making it resistant to chemical attack. Hemicellulose consists of short, highly branched, chains of sugars. It contains five carbon sugars (usually D-Xylose and L-Arabinose) and six carbon sugars (D-Galactose, D-Glucose and D-Mannose) and uronic acid. Its branched nature renders hemicellulose amorphous and relatively easy to hydrolyse to its constituent sugars. Lignin is a biopolymer rich in phenolic components, which provide structural integrity to plants. Acid and neutral detergent fraction methods (ADF and NDF) involve the gravimetric determination of residue previously treated with acid and neutral detergent solutions. These methods determine the insoluble fraction and their individual components. NDF represents the total plant fibre or cell wall including hemicellulose

The ITAF participants visited the Anuban Tilapia Floating Cage Culture on the Canoy River situated in the central part of Thailand on 11/10/2023 at 1:30 p.m. The purpose of the visit was to learn about the floating cage culture on a large scale.

Construction Details

The farmer had a total 500 number of cages divided into 5 units i.e. 1 unit contains 100 cages. The dimensions of the floating cage are 7m in length, 5m in width and 2m in depth having an area of 70 m3. The fabrication of the cage was done by using the GI pipes attached to the barrels for buoyancy. The double HDPE netting was done from five sides and on the upper side bird net was fixed as a biosecurity measure. The construction cost of the cage was 140000 baht /cage.

Pomegranate, Punica granatum is a non-climacteric fruit belonging to smallest Botanical family Punicaceae. In India, Maharashtra is a leading producer of pomegranate followed by Gujarat. Around 90 pests are reported to feed on pomegranate plant out of which only few are of economic concern. The major insect pests and mites are discussed herewith:

Anar butterfly, Deudorix epijarbas (Moore); D. isocrates (Fabricius); (Lycaenidae: Lepidoptera)

Pomegranate fruit borer, commonly known as anar butterfly is a polyphagous direct pest found throughout the country. In addition to pomegranate, it also feeds on number of crops viz. litchi, citrus, loquat, guava, sapota, aonla etc. Even the wild pomegranate is heavily infested by the fruit borer. Two species namely Deudorix epijarbas and D. isocrates are reported feeding on pomegranate out of which the former is found in hilly terrain of Northern India whereas, the latter exists in the plains of the country. The eggs are glossy, light green and shiny. The larva is dark brown with short hairs and bears whitish patches all over the body (Plate 9d). The full fed larva measures 17-20mm. The adult of D. epijarbas is a brownish butterfly with an orange patch in the

Market-Led Extension is an approach that ensures the extension system supports farmers throughout the entire value chain—from providing production-related recommendations to facilitating the sale of produce directly to consumers. The goal is to enable farmers to secure fair and profitable prices for their produce.
Axioms of Market-Led Extension
As outlined by Singh, Swanson, and Singh (2006):
1. Farmers should only be encouraged to produce a specific crop or product if a viable market exists for it.
2. If a product cannot be easily transported to market, alternative products with better market accessibility should be identified.
3. Crops or products unsuitable for local agro-climatic conditions should be avoided, and the focus should shift to those that are well-adapted to the district’s environment.
4. Promoting diversification across various high-value crops or products tailored to the preferences of Farmer Interest Groups (FIGs) or Women Interest Groups (WIGs) within the district is essential. Diversification reduces risk by preventing market saturation with a limited number of products, which can drive prices down.

South Asia, which includes countries like Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan, has a predominant focus on rice production. Rice is not only a staple food but also a critical part of the cultural and economic fabric of these nations. The climatic conditions and extensive river systems in this region provide ideal conditions for rice cultivation. For instance, in Bangladesh, rice accounts for nearly 70% of caloric intake and employs a significant portion of the rural labor force (FAO, 2023). In India, rice is grown across 44 million hectares, particularly in the eastern and southern belts (Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, India, 2022). Nepal relies heavily on monsoon-fed paddy farming, while Pakistan is a major exporter of basmati rice (Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, 2022). Diversification in Southeast Asia Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, and Lao PDR are gradually diversifying their agricultural production. While rice remains

This chapter introduces the major textile and non-textile applications of wool and relates end-use requirements to fibre properties. It examines apparel, carpets, blankets, upholstery, knitting products, interiors and technical textiles. The chapter considers how fineness, length, strength, crimp, colour, resilience and thermal behaviour influence product selection. It also highlights the continuing importance of wool in premium and specialized markets and explains how processing technology enables wool to meet different performance and design requirements.