eChapters

Saccharides : A monosaccharide sugar or combination of sugars is called saccharides.

Saccharification : The process of breaking a complex carbohydrate (starch or cellulose) into its monosaccharide components is called saccharification.

Saccharimeter : A device (polarimeter) used for measuring the amount of sugar in a solution is called saccharimeter. It is also known as saccharometer. It is a hydrometer with a special scale.

T A Spoilage : The spoilage of low and medium acid canned foods by Clostridium thermosacharolyticum which breaks sugars and form acid and gas (moisture of H₂ and CO₂) resulted in swelling and in severe cases even bursting of can may occur and the spoiled food usually has a sour odour.

U value : U value is a measure of the heat transmission through a building part (wall or window) or through a given thickness of a material (insulation). U values with lower numbers indicate better insulating properties.
 
Ubiquinone : It is one of the groups of lipid soluble quinones that are found especially in mitochondria and have a long isoprenoid side chain, and function in oxidative phosphorylation as electron carrying coenzymes in electron transport.

Vacreation : The pasteurization of the milk or cream under reduced pressure by direct steam is called vacreation.

Vacuum : The state of negative pressure. It is equal to atmospheric pressure minus absolute pressure.

Vacuum cooling : A technique of cooling vegetable (leafy vegetables, asparagus Brussels sprouts) having a high surface to volume ratio rapidly and uniformly by boiling off some of their water at 10C and at low pressure (5 mm of Hg) into a sealed container. The produce is cooled by evaporation of water from the tissue surface and is more rapid than hydro cooling.

Wafer : A thin crisp cake, candy, cracker or chips is known as wafer.
 
Waffle : A crisp cake of batter baked in a waffle iron is called waffle

Warner-Bartzler Shear : It is one of the oldest but commonly used devices used to measure the tenderness of meat. It is used to test the quality in the cooked meat.

Xanthan / Xanthan gum : It is a polysaccharide that is produced by fermentation of carbohydrates by a gram-negative bacterium (Xanthomonas campestris) and is a thickening and suspending agent used in pharmaceuticals and prepared foods. It is also called xanthan. Xanthan is a stabilizer produced by Xanthomonas compestris. Xanthan is not hydrolysed or degraded by humans.

Yabby : It is one of the burrowing Australian crayfishes (Cherax destructor) that are used for food.

Yakitori : A bite-size marinated pieces of beef, seafood, or chicken on skewers is called yakitori.

Yam : It is edible starchy tuberous root of plants (genus Dioscorea of the family Dioscoreaceae) used as a staple food in tropical areas.

Z -distribution : It is a probability density function and a normal distribution that has a mean equal to zero and a standard deviation equal to one and that is used in testing hypotheses about means or proportions of samples drawn from populations whose population standard deviations are known.

Zeatin : Zeatin is a cytokinin C₁₀H₁₃N₅O first isolated from the endosperm of Indian corn.

Abstract

Indigenous Peoples of northwestern North America have utilized several hundred local plant species, as well as some algae, lichens and fungi, in their traditional diets. Many of these are also used in traditional healing, and some have potentially harmful or poisonous properties that must be taken into account in harvesting and preparation. Other species, known primarily for their medicinal use, also have noted toxicity if used improperly or without constraints. In this study, a total of 375 traditional food and medicine plants, fungi, lichen and algal species, as well as those species reported to be toxic by indigenous knowledge holders, were surveyed across 12 First Nations groups, each with distinct languages, for overlaps across the categories of food, medicine and toxic species. A complex of species use and avoidance emerged, modulated by processing, dosage, and other factors, with significant numbers of food species with reported healing properties, food species also used as medicine, and both food and medicinal species known to be harmful or toxic under some circumstances. Even most of those species considered extremely poisonous have been taken internally as medicines in some way by some groups.

Abstract

Scholars have long been interested in the effects of markets on the diet of native populations because of diet’s direct impacts on health. Exposure and assimilation into a market economy result in shifts in modes of subsistence and decision-making about food consumption. But the clear direction of influence is often elusive. Increased market integration predicts expanded access to goods and services that may improve household and individual diet. At the same time, greater involvement in market trade can shift economic priorities away from secure subsistence production toward the lure of material gain and novel items. Here, we analyze the effects of integration into the market economy on household diet using data from a panel study of two villages of Tsimane’, an indigenous group of lowland Bolivia. Because the Tsimane’ have been undergoing varying degrees of integration into the market economy, they provide an ideal population among which to examine the relation between markets and dietary change.

Abstract

For 99% of our time on Earth, humans have been hunter-gatherers, intricately connected to and reliant upon our local lands and waters for food, materials, medicines and shelter. In this time we have evolved a unique and in-depth knowledge base, termed local ecological knowledge or ecoliteracy, which has been essential to sustaining human and ecosystem health over thousands of years. However with livelihood diversification towards non-resource dependent strategies, the emergence of local markets as a consequence of globalisation, and global patterns of economic development, our collective local knowledge is now being lost. With the loss of local livelihoods and knowledge comes a departure from traditional food systems as hunters, fishers, and gatherers and cultivators lose the skills needed to locate, collect, preserve, prepare, consume and manage indigenous foods. Traditional food systems have provided nutritional health and food security for indigenous and marginalised communities for generations, and play a critical role in cultural continuity, social systems and ecosystem biodiversity.

Abstract

With categories including food, building materials, medicinal plants and resins, non-wood forest products are the economically important face of biodiversity. Using non-wood forest products to generate income and alleviate poverty requires different approaches to their special characteristics. Among the features that distinguish non-wood forest products from other goods are the unpredictability of the quantities available, the lack of control of collectors over their growth conditions, and the difficulty of ensuring that the products can be placed on the market efficiently. In developed countries such as Finland, with under-harvesting of non-wood forest products, getting an economic benefit from these involves the seasonal migration of collectors. The latter is illustrated by the case of Thai in a working visit to Finland, to pick the often underutilized wild berry harvest in Lapland. The majority of the workers are from farming backgrounds, but there is a weak positive correlation between their non-wood forest product activity in Thailand and berry picking in Finland.

Abstract

Traditional communities the world over have been using a variety of indigenous biological resources in farming and life support systems. They are direct stakeholders in the in situ conservation and sustainable management of diverse plant species on their farms and in their home gardens. Location specific needs and ecosystem diversity plays a decisive role in maintaining biocultural resources. The present paper, based on six different case studies, describes the practices of traditional and innovative farmers in conservation of indigenous biodiversity. How farmers explore, domesticate and manage wild plant resources to sustain their livelihoods is the main theme of this study. It represents an explorative and qualitative study, carried out with diverse communities living in central India, Indo-Gangetic plains and mountainous ecosystems of Arunachal Pradesh. The study is based on 7 years of collaborative and participatory research with local and native communities. Data was generated using a combination of conventional (personal interviews with open-ended questions and informal interaction) and participatory methods.

Abstract

This study was aimed to document the Dawro people’s ethnobotanical knowledge, identify Non-Cultivated Food Plants (NCFPs) and associated challenges to their consumption. Semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, market survey and field observations were conducted to gather the ethnobotanical data. The study documented a total of 47 non-cultivated food plant species belonging to 44 genera and 34 families. Shrubs (36.7%) and herbs (32. 7%) make up the highest proportion of these plants. The two most frequently used parts were fruits (62%) and leaves (18.4%).Over 70% of the species analyzed have additional uses, primarily for medicine, construction, and firewood. Most (68%) of the recorded species are consumed fresh without further processing and they are mainly fruits. The study found that non-cultivated food plants play a vital role to the Dawro people during food shortages.

Abstract

Cultural knowledge on food and beverages is as old as human civilization. However, the traditional knowledge related to food habits and ecosystem conservation has been found to be unique in each cultural and ethnic group across the world. From time immemorial, the Nyishi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh has developed an unique set of traditional knowledge that allows the better utilization of food bioresources of their natural surrounding to sustain their livelihood. Historically, such knowledge was transmited through customary laws, folklore, and oral literature. Literature studies have revealed the lack of scientific investigation on ethnobiology of traditional food bioresources used by the Nyishi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. Hence, in the present investigation, an attempt has been made to unveil the hidden age-old cultural food and beverage knowledge practised among the Nyishi of Papum Pare and Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh. A total of 63 plant and 41 animal species have been reported during field survey in 4 circles covering a total of 12 different localities which includes rural, semi-urbans and urban type ecosystem in the 2 selected districts.

Abstract

Leafy vegetables have largely been portrayed as fulfilling an important nutritional supplement in local people’s diets, as a safety net function to rural households during periods when agricultural production is low and as a food supplement for the poverty stricken. In this paper we present evidence to show that the consumption of wild leafy vegetables (pot-herbs) represents more then just an important source of nutrition and/or a safety net function for poor households, but that they also fulfil an important cultural function for both poor and wealthy Xhosa speaking people in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. We show that the consumption of food needs to be studied as a bio-cultural phenomenon which includes both nutritional and anthropological understanding.

Abstract

It’s relatively frequent to hear about the customary consumption and commercialization of wild and cultivated mushrooms in European, North American and Asian tempered zones. In contrast, such a phenomenon has been widely unrecognized in Mesoamerican lowlands. The scarce interest for leading ethnomicological studies in these zones may be caused by a preconception according to which peoples inhabiting them do not use macroscopic fungi. Yet, archaeological evidence shows a relation between fungi and Mayan peoples existed during pre-Hispanic times.

Abstract

Oolichan (Thaleichthys pacificus), a small anadromous smelt also known as “savior fish”, were a necessity of life for Pacific Northwest Coastal and adjacent interior indigenous peoples, as they were the first fish to return to the rivers after winter and produced not only tasty flesh but also a nutritious oil, or “grease.” A focus of the traditional oolichan culture is the Nass River of northwestern British Columbia, Canada. The valleys and mountains surrounding the Nass River are the traditional homelands of the Nisga’a people, whose technological innovations including implements, buildings, and landscape structures facilitated fishing, production, and preservation of oolichan, as well as salmon. Over thousands of years, the Nisga’a developed plant-based technologies for use in the oolichan fishery and for preparation trade of rendered oolichan “grease”. In turn, structures and implements associated with the oolichan fishery facilitated knowledge exchange across generations, since the oolichan processing areas and fishing camps were the places where elders conveyed their cultural and ecological knowledge to younger people. Structures fashioned from plants helped people to recall the stories, traditions,

Abstract

The Saanich (Coast Salish) are an Indigenous people of southern Vancouver Island on the southwest coast of Canada who for many centuries have relied heavily on anadromous Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) as a major food source. Over time, Saanich fishers have become experts on many aspects of these salmon, including knowledge of the different species, their life cycles, feeding ecology, migration routes, and population dynamics. Much of this knowledge is centered at Saanich Inlet and Goldstream River, a major salmon spawning stream flowing into this inlet. Some Saanich and other Coast Salish people still fish for salmon at Goldstream using traditional gaff hooks and spears, but they have also adopted more modern gear in recent times. Pacific coho (O. kisutch) and chum (O. keta) salmon stocks in particular have fluctuated over the decades, evidently due to impacts of commercial fishing, pollution from oil leakage and domestic sewage in Saanich Inlet.

Abstract

Ladakh, comprising of Leh and Kargil district is truly described as a high altitude cold-arid desert region of J&K state, India, where local people grow barley (Hordeum vulgare) and prepare various food products out of it. The roasted barley flour, locally known as tsampa is one of them, which goes as ingredients in a variety of local dishes and beverages. It is eaten either in raw or in cooked form and the traditional method of tsampa preparation is through the Ran-tak (traditional water mill), for which efforts have been made to describe it in detail. Like other parts of the world, this remote area in the trans-Himalaya has also witnessed exchange with the outside industrial world which has brought with it many changes (both desirable and undesirable) and the traditional foods were also not left behind. One major cause for decline in the traditional tsampa preparation has been the availability of cheap subsidized produce from the lowland India, on the other hand the increase in information exchange with the outside world has also helped local people to realize the need and importance to conserve their own locally grown crops and integrate into the mainstream fooding system. However, tsampa prepared using the traditional method is still being preferred by the local inhabitants

Abstract

Mahua (Madhuca spp.) is an important tree in India, with high socio-economic, environmental and spiritual values. We carried out this study among the local communities of Azamgarh district (eastern Uttar Pradesh) and with the Gond and Baiga tribes from Raisen and Dindori districts, Madhya Pradesh. Among the five mahua species found in Indian subcontinent, Madhuca latifolia is widely distributed in the north and central plains, the focal area of our study. Mahua has been vital to the survival of these communities, particularly the Gond and Baiga tribes, from the time immemorial. It has been a major source of food energy in the form of sugar, seed oil and alcohol. As well, different parts of the tree are used as ethnomedicine. The tribal people’s high regard for mahua is reflected by its sustainable and regulated use. In this study, we present an in-depth analysis of conservation, management and sustainable use of mahua, and also suggest its role in socio-economic adaptation, with particular reference to climate change.

1.1 Introduction

‘Cucurbits’ is a term coined by Liberty Hyde Bailey for cultivated species of the family Cucurbitacae. During this current century the term has been used not only for cultivated forms, but also for any species of the family Cucurbitacae. Cucurbits are frost sensitive, predominantly tendril-bearing vines which are found in subtropical regions around the globe. A few numbers of species those are native to or cultivated in temperate climate are prolific seed producing annuals or perennials that live for one season until killed by frost (Robinson and Decker-Walters 2004). Other vernaculars applied to the family Cucurbitacae and several of its members are ‘gourd’, ‘melon’, ‘cucumber’, ‘squash’ and ‘pumpkin’.

2.1 Insect Pests

Insects are often a major obstacle to the successful production of cucurbits (York, 1992). They can severely reduce yield, injure or kill plants, spread diseases and adversely affect fruit quality. A number of insect pests, mites and nematodes have been found to infest cucurbitaceous vegetables but fortunately, in India, fruit flies and a few species of beetles are of economic importance; aphids and blister beetles though of regular occurrence, seldom cause severe damage.
 
Other insect pests reported to infest the cucurbitaceous vegetables are pumpkin caterpillar, Diaphania indica (Sounders), snake gourd semilooper, Plusia peponis Fab., white fly, Bemisia tabaci Genn., stink bugs, Apspongopus spp. and flea beetle, Phyllotreta spp. etc. These biotic pressures on the crops are increasing day by day due to round-the-year intensive cultivation of photo and thermo insensitive cultivars as well as indiscriminate use of toxic agro-chemicals in the present era of chemicalized agriculture.

Tremendous genetic diversity occur within different crops of this family with respect to their adaptability. Some cucurbits are grown in tropical, subtropical or arid deserts whereas other prefer to grow in temperate conditions. Harvested fruits and vegetables can be potentially exposed to numerous abiotic stresses during production, handling, storage and distribution (Hodges, 2003). However, when the abiotic stress is moderate or severe, quality losses almost always are incurred at market (Toivonen, 2003). Annually about 42% of the crop productivity is lost owing to various abiotic stress factors (Oerke et al., 1994). One of the key factors for abiotic stress in crop plants is the ill effect of global warming which may cause reduced precipitation, less snow pack, and earlier snow melt, leading to drought conditions. In addition about 20% of the world’s irrigated lands are affected by salinity (Zhu, 2001), a situation worsened by climate changes.

Introduction

Horticulture is the science of cultivation, management, postharvest handling, value addition and marketing of fruits, vegetables, ornamental, aromatic and medicinal plants, spices and plantation crops. Looking to its important role in nutritional security, poverty alleviation and employment generation, it has rightly been emerged in form of horticulture industry and as one of the most significant sectors in the world. The production of fruits, vegetables and flowers has acquired much importance in recent times due to their increasing demand. Changing lifestyles of people across the globe, attempts to overcome the stressful lifestyle, inclination towards healthy and balanced eating habits have made people include fruits and vegetables in their daily diet. In the case of flowers, the demand for fresh flowers has steadily increased not only for decoration but also for many other purposes like essential oils, cosmetics, aroma therapy, dry flowers, pot-pourries, natural dyes, medicines, etc. Rising incomes and growing consumer interest in a variety of fresh fruits and vegetables year-round is stimulating international trade in horticulture.

Introduction

Vegetables are the vital sources of minerals, vitamins and dietary fibres and play an important role in supplying nutrition to human health. Vegetables require comparatively lesser quantities of agro-inputs to grow. Vegetables are rich source of vitamins, minerals and plant fibres which provide food and nutritional security. These also generate high income and employment, particularly for small farmers. Vegetables being a rich and cheap source of vitamins and minerals, occupy an important place in the food basket of Indian consumers, a majority of whom are vegetarian. This persistent vegetarianism coupled with rising per capita income is fuelling a rapid growth in consumption of vegetables. Presently, India is producing more then 70 types of vegetables which are capable of meet out the economic and nutritional requirement of the country (Table 1). There has been a revolution in the production of vegetables in the country in the last four decades.

Introduction

Beauty, purity, love and passion are some of the emotions symbolized by the flowers. The feelings of love, affection and joy are conveyed effectively with these non-speaking beauties of nature, for example a lotus conveys purity, rose love, pansy thoughts and narcissus egotism. Flowers have a definite role to play at almost all occasions of human affairs like birth, marriage, worship, adornments and death. Besides flowers, other ornamental plants also play an important role in environmental planning of urban and rural areas and from wasteland development to overcoming pollution. An important aspect of floriculture is that it is a good avenue to generate gainful employment for youth and women of peri-urban and rural areas.

Introduction

India (8^o-30^o N and 68-97.5^ºE) exhibits a wide range in topography and climate, which has a bearing on its vegetation and floristic composition. This subcontinent is one of the World’s 12 leading Biodiversity Centres, encompassing 16 different agro-climatic zones, 10 vegetation zones, 25 biotic provinces and about 426 habitats of specific species. It has been estimated that about 45,000 plant species (nearly 20% of the global species) occurs in the Indian Sub-continent. About 3,500 species of both higher and lower plant groups are of medicinal values. More than 80 per cent of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are collected from 17 million hectares of Indian forest land. However, many of these, due to over-exploitation have become rare (Rheum emodi, Aconitum deinorrhizum), threatened (Rauvolfia serpentina, Berberis artistata) or endangered ones (Sassurea lappa, Dioscorea deltoidea). Problems arising out of rapid genetic loss of medicinal plants forced the need for international co-operation and co-ordination to undertake programmes for conservation of medicinal plants to ensure that adequate quantities are available for future generations.

Introduction

Vegetable crops are an important component of Indian Agriculture. They are known for their short cycle and high productivity per unit area providing a valuable source of income leading to improve livelihood. The prosperity and advancement of a nation largely depend on achieving nutritional security to its people. The vegetables play a vital role as major supplement to food and nutritional security of our people. They are important source of nutrients like b- carotene, vitamin B, C, E as well as folic acid, iron, magnesium, etc. and they also supply fair amounts of carbohydrate, protein, fiber, antioxidants and energy.

Introduction

Citrus spp. grown in almost all the states of India. Citrus fruit, consisting of mandarin oranges (Citrus reticulata Blanco), sweet orange (Citrus sinensis Osbeck) and lime (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle) are grown commercially in tropical, sub-tropical, arid, irrigated and mountainous regions in varying soil and weather condition. The citrus tree on the whole do well in dry climate, with a rainfall between 75 and 125 cm but certain species such as pummel and certain mandarin oranges thrive in heavy rainfall areas of Konkan, Assam and Coorg. It is grown almost all kinds of soil, varying from heavy black soil to shallow open soils. A hard substratum or a sticky impervious layer is very injurious. Soils having a high water table should be avoided. Although the citrus industry in India has faced many challenges, there has been a consistent increase in area and production owing to the awareness for sustained production (Table 1).

Introduction

Agriculture is highly dependent on environment, and it’s very difficult to get favourable climate and other conditions for optimum crop growth and development as per crop need. Open field conditions are having a high direct affect of the prevailing weather conditions on crop growth, and also on population dynamics of viruses, fungus, bacteria, insects, etc. With time crops has adopted themselves to specific seasons, but the fast changing climatic conditions happening across the globe has changed the climatic characteristics of a season. This has resulted in untimely rains, high temperature fluctuations and changes in other abiotic and biotic factors in geographically varied locations where it was not supposed to be earlier based on various geographical factors deciding the climatic conditions of that area. Therefore, there is need to develop suitable technologies to sustain these challenges. How to address these issues, can we manipulate the climatic conditions or can we provide protection to the crops against climatic fluctuations and various other related stresses.

Current Trends in Fruit Exports from India

Fruit culture in the Indian subcontinent dates back to the Harappan civilization when datepalm, pomegranate and lemon were domesticated. Fruits such as aonla, bael, jackfruit, karonda, phalsa, mango, pomegranate, almond, walnut and pistachio are mentioned in Charaka Samhita (300 BC) and Sushruta Samhita (400 BC), the oldest known texts on ayurveda. Owing to diverse agro climatic conditions, India can produce a wide range of tropical, subtropical, arid and temperate fruits. In the past few decades, India had made rapid strides in fruit production and is currently the second largest producer of fruits in the world, next only to China. The annual production is estimated to be about 81 million tonnes for about 12.6% of the total world production. However, India’s share in the global export of fresh fruits is less than 5 per cent. The major fruits exported in terms of quantity are grape, mango, banana and pomegranate. In value terms, grapes and mango earn the maximum foreign exchange for India.

Introduction

In horticulture crops, plant materials has been  propagated through vegetative propagation methods for its superiority in growth as well as yield for centuries. Among vegetative propagation methods, micropropagation is most advance technique which made a significance in the horticultural crops to increase quality and yield. It can produce many plants from a single individual.

Introduction

Green house is a structure in which external climatic factors can be controlled for cultivation and protection of crops. It has mainly two parts. (a)  a frame or the basic structure and (b) the cladding or covering material (U.V. film) Frame can be made of G.I. pipes, bamboos, woods or iron rods while the cover can be of glass or plastic films. In India the technology is primarily used. Greenhouse technology is more suited to vegetables crops (such as tomato, cauliflower, capsicum, cucumber, leafy vegetables etc.), and flowers (like rose, gerbera, carnation, etc).  This technology is mainly suitable for commercial farming, as it requires investment in setting up the entire framework.  Based on cooling systems of the greenhouse, it can be classified as naturally ventilated and fan-pad type greenhouse.

Introduction

The horticulture sector has been a driving force in stimulating a healthy growth trend in Indian agriculture. This sector contributes around 28 per cent of the GDP from about 13.08 per cent of the area and 37 percent of the total exports of the agricultural commodities (Rather et al., 2013)  India is currently producing 257.2 million tonnes of horticulture produce from an area of 23 million ha. Over the last decade, the area under horticulture grew by about 3.8% per annum but production rose by 7.6% per annum. The higher growth rate in horticulture was brought about by improvement in productivity of horticulture crops, which increased by about 28% between 2001-02 and 2011-12. (Anonymous, 2012)

Mineral Nutrition and Nutritional Deficiency

The normal green plant is autotrophic that means it can synthesise all its organic substances; provided it is supplied with all the inorganic elements and growth under normal condition. The nutrition of green plant is therefore, solely inorganic. It is, in fact, commonly called mineral nutrition. Element absorbed from the soil by the roots are generally known as Plant nutrition or Mineral nutrients.

Introduction

Plant needs nutrients for their growth and development. In a systemic agriculture, nutrients are supplied to the plant in different amount, form and time for the economic and optimum crop production. Green revolution realized in the late sixties of the last century is an outcome of efficient use of improved varieties and nutrient management. Success of the green revolution has increased use of chemical fertilizers in the post green revolution era. Soon the chemical fertilizers become indispensible from all the crops including vegetable and plantation crops. Non judicious use of chemicals in the agriculture has lead to the serious health, soil and environmental hazards. Biofertilizers are considered to be the most safe, promising and economic component of sustainable agriculture. Biofertilizer is a substance which contains living or latent microorganisms which, when applied to seed, plant root or soil, colonizes the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes growth by providing and essential nutrients or increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plant. They can applied in all the agronomic, horticultural and plantation crops.

Introduction

Plant hormones (also known as phytohormones) are chemicals that regulate plant growth, which are termed ‘plant growth substances’. Plant hormones are signal molecules produced within the plant and occur in extremely low concentrations. Plant hormones are small, simple molecules of diverse chemical composition: indole compounds, terpenes, adenine derivatives, steroids, aliphatic hydrocarbons and derivatives of carotenoids or fatty acids. In the context of rooted habit and iterative mode of growth, plant hormones are not produced in specialized glands, but in most parts of the plants. Plant hormones are required in minicule quantities and their concentrations at sites of activity are precisely regulated. Changes in hormones concentration and tissue sensitivity mediate a whole range of development processes in plants, many of which involve interaction with environmental factors. First five hormones discovered from the plants were gibberellins, abscisic acid, cytokinins, indole-3-acetiv acid, and ethylene as well as some compound shown more recently to have a regulatory role in plant development, namely, brassinosteroids, polyamines, jasmonic acid and salicylic acid.

What is Precision Farming?

It is information and technology based farm management system to identify, analyze and manage variability within fields for optimum profitability, sustainability and protection of the land resource without disturbing the environment. It is basically means adding the right amount of treatment at the right time and right location within a field.

Introduction

India is the second most populous country in the world. The per capita cultivable land resource is shrinking day by day. To meet the food, fibre, fuel, fodder, and other needs of the growing population, the productivity of agricultural land has necessarily to be increased. It requires increased use of agricultural inputs like quality seeds, fertilizers, water, agro-chemicals, etc. in such a manner that do not create any environmental problems.

Plant needs different chemical elements to grow and thrive. The most important chemical elements include (i) carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, which are basic life building blocks and are available in plenty from air and water (ii) nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium which are the macro nutrients and affect the plant growth significantly (iii) sulfur, calcium, and magnesium as secondary nutrients and (iv) boron, chloride, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum and zinc as micronutrients in very small quantities.

Introduction

The green revolution technologies involving the greater use of synthetic agrochemicals with adoption of nutrient responsive, high yielding varieties of crops have boosted the production output. However, this increase in production has slowed down and in some cases there are indications of decline in growth of productivity and production. Environmental and health problems associated with agriculture. These questions have given rise to a process of serious thinking to safeguard the environment and the quality produce.

Introduction

Production system under arid and semi-arid region faces several biophysical constraints (high solar radiation, low and erratic rainfall, high wind velocity, poor soil conditions, etc.). Availability of irrigation water and irrigation potential in these regions are meager. Nutrition, food security and sufficient livelihood options based on agriculture are the major challenges of the people living in these regions. Sustainable productivity in these regions cannot be achieved by monoculture of either seasonal or forage crops, and thus hinges the need for diversifying the cropping pattern through fruit based cropping system which has good potential particularly in the arid and semi-arid regions. Because hunger and malnutrition are often linked to poverty, providing economic opportunities through horticultural production not only helps family incomes, but also addresses food security and nutrition. Thus, cropping system approach for agricultural production has greater significance in these regions.

The Indian arid and semi-arid regions are characterized by immature, structure less, coarse textured soils with low water holding capacity and poor nutrient status. The moisture deficit conditions dominate for a long time throughout the year, which acts as the major limiting factor for establishment and growth of woody plant. Due to harsh edapho-climatic conditions, arable crop production is risky in arid and semi arid regions and threatening the agriculture, under such situation, horticulture based cropping system is considered effective strategy for improving productivity, employment oppornitues and nutritional security. Most of the cropping systems operating in the limited irrigated    area of arid ecosystems have very high water requirement and are highly unsustainable, hence location specific models have to be developed involving fruit crops, multipurpose tree species and arable crops in an agri-silvi-horti production system for increasing irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE), productivity, profitability and sustainability of the system. An attempt has been made to present the status of available research data on some of horticulture based farming systems for arid and semi arid regions

Introduction
  
Horticultural production can be highly profitable, increase employment opportunities, and bring about increasing commercialization of the rural sector. Horticulture thus has a role to play in a world where 1.1 billion people continue to live in extreme poverty on less than US$1 a day and another 1.6 billion who live between one and two dollars per day (Von Braun et al., 2004). While in past, priority to achieving self sufficiency in food grain production in our country, over the years, horticulture has emerged as an indispensable part of agriculture, offering a wide range of choices to the farmers for crop diversification. It also provides ample opportunities for sustaining large number of agro-industries which generate substantial employment opportunities. The horticulture sector contributes around 28% of the GDP from about 13.08% of the area and 37 % of the total exports of agricultural commodities (Annon, 2007).

Introduction

Integrated disease management in horticultural crops are of paramount importance these days, keeping in view that a single management practice cannot control multiple diseases in a particular agro ecological system. It is therefore worthwhile that all management practices are integration of cultural, physical, biological and chemical control strategies. The routine application of fungicides for insurance purposes is not appropriate, as it does not focus the proper attention on the real problem and can lead to resistance and potential environmental issues. Fungal, bacterial, viral diseases cause a great damage to the horticultural crops thus resulting in economic losses to the farmers. The extent of damage varies from year to year, location wise and variety involved. The pathogens responsible for causing diseases affect the crop at various stages of their development right from seedling stage to harvest. The manifestation of a disease can be in the form of different symptoms viz., damping off, leaf spot, blight, wilt, etc. It is thus important to properly identify a particular disease in a crop on knowledgeable basis to reach a particular end of profitability. As such, a proper disease diagnosis is of paramount importance.

Introduction

Agriculture in general and horticulture in particular are highly vulnerable to year-to-year climatic variability. Farmers and other decision makers in agriculture make decisions based on their understanding of general climatic patterns for their regions. Crops are constantly threatened by pests such as insects and nematodes, as well as diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses and other micro-organisms. However, depending on weather conditions, the severity is very variable from year to year and often control strategies are applied without considering the climatic variability. Moreover, following the global climate change predictions, meteorological conditions triggering pest population/disease infection cycles are destined to increase, leading to consequent increase of the pests/diseases pressure. Sustainable plant protection strategies rely on weather and climate related pest and disease forecasting models in order to:

Introduction

Insect pests cause enormous loss to horticultural crops through direct and indirect invasion on various plant parts. It is estimated from the available information in the literature that there are about 1000 insect pests species on about 100 major and minor horticultural crops in India (Sharma et al., 2011).  The yield and quality of produce are central system point to the sustainable horticultural production. If not properly managed, pests can dramatically reduce crop yield, quality and subsequent returns. We invest a lot of time, money and natural resources into growing horticultural crops. Good pest management could protect this investment from avoidable losses.

Weeds are unwanted and undesirable plants which interfere with the utilization of land and water resources and thus adversely affect human welfare. They can also be referred as plants out of place. Weeds rank first among different agricultural pests causing crop loss. About 30,000 species of weeds have been listed in the world, out of which 18,000 cause serious damage in different ways resulting in considerable loss to agricultural production.

Introducton

The Working Group Report of Fifth Assessment Report 2013, by UN’s Inter governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) says, that to limit warming to a rise of 2ºC above pre industrial levels, 1000 gigatones (trillion tons) is the upper limit of CO₂ that can be emitted. However, by 2011, we have already emitted 531 gigatones since last 260 yrs and in next 25 years, we will cross 1000 gigatones limit. There is a clear long-term global warming trend. Notably, the 20 warmest years have all occurred since 1981, and the 10 warmest have all occurred in the past 12 years.

Demand and Supply of Horticulture Produce

India’s horticulture production rose 30 per cent in the last five years — an impressive rise, considering growth in the preceding five years stood at about 23 per cent. India is currently producing 257.2 million tonnes of horticulture produce from an area of 23 million ha.The area under horticulture grew by about 3.8% per annum but production rose by 7.6% per annum. Improvement in productivity of horticultural crops was noted by about 28% between 2001-02 and 2011-12. Of the 140 million farmers in the country, horticulture engages about 20 million and also contributes about 30 per cent of India’s agricultural GDP. Horticulture contributes 37% of total exports of Agricultural commodities. India is among the foremost countries in horticulture production, just behind China.