eChapters

Introduction

A sustainable approach to managing pests by combining biological, cultural, physical and chemical tools in a way that minimizes economic, health and environmental risks. The objective for IPM practitioners is to minimize risks to human health and the environment from the pest management actions implemented. IPM is a holistic approach that seeks to manage pests by using methods that are effective, economically sound, and ecologically compatible. IPM practitioners base decisions on information that is collected systematically as they integrate economic, environmental, and social goals. IPM promotes the use and integration of biological control agent as one of the strategies for pest and disease management. Because, biological control of plant pathogen is a potential alternative to the use of environment harming chemical pesticides in agriculture.

A bioassay, also known as a biological assay, is a scientific experiment used to quantify the impact of a substance on a living organism. According to Finney (1952), bioassay is defined as measurement of potency of any stimulus (physical, chemical, biological, physiological) by means of reactions which it produces in living matter. It is an essential procedure in insecticide development and the assessment of environmental pollutants, as well as the evaluation of the effects of interventions viz. pesticides and herbicides on the environment. In the field of biostatistics, a bioassay refers to a set of techniques used to determine the quantity or intensity of an agent or stimulus based on the response of the subject. Typically, many methods are employed to assess the strength or effectiveness of an insecticide by examining its impact on living organisms.

An insecticide is a pesticide used to kill or eliminate insect pests in agriculture, households, and industries. Judicious use of insecticides may be a factor in the increase of agricultural productivity, but by their nature of having high toxicity to non target organisms and capability to develop resistance through widespread use, most insecticides have high potential to significantly affect and alter ecosystems. Many are toxic to humans and animals (both domestic and wildlife), and can accumulate as concentrates in the food chain and water resources, giving rise to serious environmental contamination and pollution.

Biological assay or bioassay

• A bioassay is an analytical method to determine the concentration or potency of a substance by its effect on living animals or plants (in vivo), or on living cells or tissues (in vitro).

• Bio-assays are thus a type of experiments with the object of comparing the efficacy of two or more substances, or preparations, like drugs, by using responses produced by them on suitable living organisms.

• The bio assay involves a stimulus applied to a subject and the response of the subject to the stimulus.

• When a stimulus is applied to a subject there may be a change in some characteristics of the subject. Such changes in the subject are known as responses.

• The response may be quantitative as in the case of weight or qualitative as in the case of mortality. The magnitude of response depends upon the dose.

• Normally, two preparations having a common effect are taken for assaying. One of the preparations is of known strength and is called the standard preparation and the other is of unknown strength and is called test preparation.

18.1 Introduction

The Packaging Institute International describes packaging as the enclosure of items, packages or products in a wrapped pouch, box, bag, cup, can, tray, tube, bottle or other container for protection, preservation, containment, communication, performance and utility. To an engineer or a scientist, it is technical matter as it is a system designed for efficient delivery of safe food products with high quality, via each and every stage of distribution chain, from production of raw material to food manufacture, packaging, retail, wholesale, consumer, disposal and finally recycling or of resource resurgence. The extent of food packaging is literally broad as it encompasses technological activities such as graphic and machinery design, package manufacture and development, shelf life testing, distribution and marketing. Food packaging science is a discipline which applies principles from four major areas of science (materials science, food science, information science and socioeconomics) to understand the properties of packaging materials, packaging requirements of foods and the packaging system. Both material science and food science have been two major contributors for food packaging development. Material science is important to understand the mechanical strength, barrier properties, appearance and physical and chemical properties of paper, glass, metal, polymer and composite. Food science is important to understand the deterioration kinetics of foods (such as microbial growth, lipid oxidation, moisture loss or gain) governs the food shelf life. Food packaging technology is a science based solutions to address specific food packaging needs; examples are tamper evident packaging, microwavable packaging, modified atmospheric packaging, and controlled atmospheric packaging which are aimed at enhancing safety, quality and convenience for the consumer.

Abstract

Biochar is the product of thermal degradation of organic materials in the absence of air (pyrolysis), and is distinguished from charcoal by its use as a soil amendment. Biochar is generally alkaline in pH and may increase soil pH with greater increase observed in sandy and loamy soils than in clayey soils. Biochar addition can increase cation exchange capacity, base saturation, exchangeable bases and organic carbon content as well as decreases in Al saturation in acid soils. Biochar enhances soil productivity by improving the physical, chemical and biological soil conditions. Improvement in soil structure increase soil water retention. A comparative study of soil fertility and leaching losses of nutrients between an Anthrosol and an adjacent unamended Ferralsols revealed that the Anthrasol had significantly higher P, Ca, Mn and Zn availability than the Ferralsol, and an increased biomass of both cowpea and rice by 38–45% without fertilization. More experimentation is needed to substantiate multiple benefits of biochar application in relevant soil-environment-climate-management factors and minimize any possible drawbacks in Indian perspective. Efficient use of biochar in agricultural system is one viable option that can enhance natural rates of carbon sequestration in the soil, reduce farm waste, enhance crop yield with concomitant improvement in soil quality.

Introduction

Soil plays a vital role in fulfilling fundamental human requirements, such as the provision of sustenance and water, while also serving as the primary medium for supporting biodiversity. The sustainability of soil in the 21st century is dependent upon not only the implementation of effective management practices by farmers, foresters, and land-planners, but also on government regulations, policies, marketing strategies, and subsidies (Mishra et al., 2017). The increasing influence of human activities on the Earth’s natural environment has led to significant global challenges concerning the interplay of planetary and public health (J. Huang et al., 2018).

Introduction 
Carbon rich solid residue named as biochar produced by heating biomass in a procedure recognized as pyrolysis. During pyrolysis, biomass, including crop and forestry residues, manure, municipal and industrial wastes, is broken down at temperatures exceeding 400°C, with minute to no oxygen present. This procedure results in the making of syngas, bio oil, and biochar. Given its high carbon content, approximately 60% to 90%, biochar addition in soil has been recommended as an effective, long-term method for capturing atmospheric CO2 within terrestrial ecosystems. In addition to its role in reducing greenhouse gas productions and carbon sequestration, biochar offers various advantages for soil quality enhancement. Incorporating biochar into soils can boost crop yields by improvising the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the soil, such as increasing water retention, adjusting soil pH, and enhancing microbial activity (Zoghlami and Paës, 2019). The production of biochar offer several benefits such as carbon sequestration in which produced biochar captures carbon that would otherwise be released into the atmosphere (Rahimi, Anand and Gautam, 2022). This helps mitigate climate change by locking carbon in a steady form for a lengthy period, reducing greenhouse gas emissions. When added to soil, biochar can enhance its physical, chemical, and biological properties. It improves water preservation, nutrient accessibility, and microbial activity, leading to increased soil fertility and crop yields (Saikia et al., 2015)perennial grass species Arundo donax L. was pyrolysed in a fixed-bed reactor and characterization was performed for the liquid and the solid products. The effect of process parameters such as temperature (350-650°C. Biochar production can utilize various types of organic waste materials, including agricultural residues, forestry waste, and certain municipal and industrial wastes. This reduces the burden on landfills and promotes waste recycling. The pyrolysis process used to create biochar can be designed to minimize emissions of harmful gases and particulates, thus contributing to air quality improvement. These byproducts can be used as sources of renewable energy, further reducing the carbon footprint. Biochar can improve soil aeration, reduce soil erosion, and help prevent nutrient leaching, which contributes to overall soil health and ecosystem stability as described in figure 9.1. It can remain in the soil for thousands of years, providing long-term carbon storage benefits. Biochar

Introduction 
The fast-changing world has put a vast amount of pressure on the energy system [1]. That has resulted in a sudden increase in global energy consumption. For several centuries fossil fuels have been the bedrock of energy generation, powering industries, households, and transportation. Apart from this mounting evidence of climate change has been characterized by rising global temperatures, extreme weather conditions and rise in the sea level are been directly linked to the emissions generated by the combustion of these fossil fuels. The harmful effect of the greenhouse gases on the environment has impacted globally. We strongly need much safer and more sustainable energy sources. In addition, the main reason behind international relations instability is often linked with the fossil fuel-dependent economies, coupled with the finite nature of such resources, which has underscored the requirement of diversifying the energy mix. Biochar an alternatives to fossil fuels emerging as carbon-rich material produced by heating biomass in anaerobic conditions this product is known as pyrolysis [2]. This substance has the potential that be derived from a variety of biomass waste streams, including animal excreta, food scraps, forestry residues municipal solid waste, and agriculture by-products. Transforming organic waste into stable, carbon-rich products, biochar offers a dual benefit that addresses waste management challenges while contributing to carbon storage. Biochar is a versatile material that has exceptional properties that make it a promising alternative for addressing various environmental and energy challenges [3]. It has unique characteristics that include high porosity, creating a network of interconnected pores that enhance its surface area and reactivity, functional groups that enables biochar to react with a wide variety of substances. The substantial surface area provides ample sites for adsorption a process where pollutants bind to the biochar surface. The material high cation exchange capacity allows it to retain essential nutrients by preventing their leaching and helping in enhancing soil fertility [4]. However, biochar has remarkable stability providing resistant degradation and persisting in the environment for extended periods, making it an effective carbon sequestration tool. The economic benefits of biochar are equally persuasive, as it can be produced from low cost readily available biomass waste thereby reducing waste disposal costs. Furthermore, the process of creating biochar is really simple and effective for the environment and contributes to the overall appeal. There are several studies have underscored biochar’s effectiveness in removing pollutants from water spills [5]. To produce biochar there are several thermochemical conversion techniques are been employed, including torrefaction, gasification, flash carbonization, pyrolysis, and hydrothermal carbonization. among this pyrolysis is the most prevalent method. This process involves biomass heating without oxygen that results in organic matter decomposition and the formation of biochar and bio-oil. Pyrolysis is done under a state of low oxygen, where the biomass is degraded the biomass type, residence time, and thermal efficiency at a given temperature, heating, and feedstock type impact the item formed in due process. The fundamental characteristics and structure of biochar also depend upon the kind of reactor used in the carbonization process [6] organic material synthesized through pyrolysis of different biomass (plant or animal waste. Currently available technologies for characterizing biochar include nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), Raman spectroscopy, Braeuer Emmett Teller (BET), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Thermos Gravimetric Analysis (TGA), and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) [7,8]. Due to its numerous benefits and used in a variety of, environmental problems like cutting greenhouse gas emissions

ABSTRACT

In the present investigation on three different plant species from pollution and control area were carried act for biochemical analysis such as total chlorophyll content, leaf extract pH, relative water content and ascorbic acid test. The results indicate accordance to order of tolerance index of plant species in air pollution are Macrosolen cochinchinensis, Loranthus parasiticus and Viscum album. The changes in pollution tolerance index are biochemically induced due to the surrounding environmental conditions. Thus, it is observed that Macrosolen cochinchinensis is highly tolerant species among the selected three species. Thus, in future this plant species may play an important role in pollution indicator. APTI analysis show the pollution tolerating decreasing order for there species can be Macrosolen cochinchinensis> Loranthus parasiticus>Viscum album and as ascorbic acid result indicate that Macrosolen cochinchinensis show mostly defence mechanism and highly tolerance level against different kind of pollutant. Besides these three hemiparasite plant species have some valuable ethnomedicinal important. In India tribal people used leaf and stem bark in curing abortion, miscarriage, vaginal bleeding during pregnancy, treat circulatory and respiratory system problems.

Postharvest losses of fruits and vegetables are even higher and are estimated to be 40-50%. Postharvest fruit rotting are a major cause of those losses and are chiefly caused by fungal pathogens after fruit ripening. In a manner similar to foliar diseases that occur in the field, several factors as fungal pathogenicity, host response and environment determine the outcome of host resistance or susceptibility. However, in postharvest diseases fruit ripening is another major component that will determine fruit resistance. The molecular trigger induces the germ tube to differentiate an appressorium. It has been shown that excess nutrients over ride it and protein synthesis is not required once germination has occurred. Protein synthesis during conidium germination and appressorium formation on cellulose membranes were observed (Pathak, 1997). A specific polypeptide (95 kDa) was synthesized only when appressoria matured (a period lasting from 12-24 h after germination). This molecule is involved in the synthesis of the melanin precursor, Scytalone.

Appressoria grown in the presence of cyclohexamide do not mature nor they subsequently differentiate a penetration peg. Appressorium maturation involves the formation of melanin. It has been shown that melanization of appressoria is necessary for formation of a successful penetration peg. The melanin appears to give the appressorium mechanical strength, but pigmentation is only one factor required for penetration competent appressoria. At restrictive temperatures, pigmentation of conidia of C. lagenarium mutants could be restored with dihydroxyphenylalanine without restoration of appressorial competence. Non-pathogenic mutants have been used to determine factors important for pathogenicity. Cutinase production was essential for penetration of papaya fruits. The cutinase produced during infection of papaya fruit by C. gloeosporioides has been purified and characterized as a glycoprotein of 24 kDa. Polyclonal antibodies raised against this enzyme do not cross react with cutinase from Fusarium so/ani, and lesions do not develop when papaya fruits are inoculated with spore suspensions containing the antibody preparation.

Introduction

Salinity is a significant environmental stress for crop plants it account for about 70% of the losses in the crop yield. It adversely affects seed germination, seedling growth and different metabolic activities in plants (Begum et al. 1997). It reduces DNA, RNA and protein synthesis and differentially influences the activities of the hydrolytic enzymes (Kumar et al. 1996).

Plants are classified as glycophytes or halophytes according to their capacity to grow on high salt medium. Most crop plants are glycophytes and cannot tolerate salt stress. High salt concentration decreases the osmotic potential of soil solution creating a water stress in plants. Secondly they cause severe ion toxicity since Na+ is not readily sequestered into vacuoles as in halophytes.

The widespread nature of saline soils compounded by the geographical distribution of man’s population and agricultural practices are largely succeeded in increasing salinization in arid and semi-arid lands. Most of the crops are sensitive to even low concentration of NaCl.

ABSTRACT

Brinjal is an important solanaceous vegetable, which holds coveted position among the different vegetables. Developing hybrids with high yield and resistance to borer would be highly beneficial. The biochemical parameters are used to study the mechanism of resistance to pests and diseases. With this aim, the biochemical constituents were estimated in five intervarietal hybrids and their parents with susceptible variety. The study on biochemical basis of resistance to shoot and fruit borer showed that among the parents of intervarietal crosses, EP 65 had the highest level of peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase and total phenol content in both shoot and fruit and it also recorded high content of solasodine next to APAU Bagmathi. Among the hybrids, the cross EP 65 x Pusa Uttam had the highest level of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase activity in both shoot and fruit and high level of total phenols and solasodine content next to EP 104 x APAU Bagmathi . The susceptible check (CO 2) registered the lowest value for all the biochemical constituents .The study revealed that the genotypes with high or moderate level of these biochemical constituents suffered less for shoot and fruit borer infestation.

The native gel electrophoretic study showed that for peroxidase enzyme, the intervarietal hybrids EP 65 x Pusa Uttam, EP 12 x MDU 1 and EP 104 x APAU Bagmathi and the susceptible variety CO 2 did not show difference in the induction of isoform (PO-1) and all were single and thick. For polyphenol oxidase (PPO), the intervarietal hybrids and the variety CO 2 showed single and strong band induction

The evaluation of genotypes based on biochemical constituents and isozyme studies revealed the superiority of the parents EP 65, APAU Bagmathi and MDU 1and the hybrids EP 65 x Pusa Uttam, EP 12 x MDU 1 and EP 104 x APAU Bagmathi. The identified hybrids with high yield and resistance to shoot and fruit borer could be exploited for commercial cultivation.

Identification of enteric bacilli is of prime importance for controlling intestinal infections. This can be achieved by preventing contamination of food and water by a group of bacteria belonging to family – Enterobacteriaceae which are found in the intestinal tract of human beings and lower mammals. The microorganisms of this family are short, gram negative, non spore forming bacilli. Such common enteric bacteria are a) pathogens such as species of Salmonella and Shigella b) occasional pathogens like species of Proteus and Klebsiella and c) normal intestinal flora like species of Escherichia and Enterobactor.

Introduction

Germplasm identification as a part of a philosophy of consumer protection extends through the entire seed trade and allied industries, from plant breeders to food consumers. Increasingly, countries are introducing schemes for Plant Breeders (or germplasm) Rights. These reward breeders financially for their efforts and offer protection for their germplasm, but in turn require that new germplasm are distinct from others and also uniform and stable in the expression of their characteristics. Since, the genetic variations in plants and plant populations are of considerable interest to have desirable traits to develop a commercial variety. Biochemical and molecular biology based data and its analysis for information regarding selection have been realized of utmost importance.

The dry matter production is maximum in cassava (3.0 m t ha^-1) and is followed by yams (2.4 m t ha^-1) and sweet potato (2.1 m t ha^-1) and are higher than rice, wheat, maize and banana (1.3 to 1.9 m t ha^-1). The energy production is maximum in yams (182 M J ha^-1 day^-1) and it is followed by sweet potato (152 M J ha^-1 day^-1) and cassava (121 M J ha^-1 day^-1) (Horton and Fano, 1985).

1. Sweet Potato

Both sweet potato roots and tops are nutritious foods which could be used to advantage in combating nutritional deficiencies in parts of the developing world if means could be found to overcome resistance to their increased consumption. The roots are used primarly as human food and are eaten boiled, steamed, fried or baked. They are not only a moderately good energy source, but also contain significant quantities of the water-soluble vitamins viz., ascorbic acid and thiamin, besides supplying part of the daily requirement for riboflavin and niacin. Their contents of pyridoxine, folic acid and pantothenic acid may be relatively high. Raw leaves and tender tips are also excellent sources of ascorbic acid and some of the B-vitamins, especially riboflavin which is deficient in many Asian diets. However, high percentages of water-soluble vitamins are lost on cooking (Woolfe, 1992).

Transforming organic materials, such as agricultural residues, food waste, or biomass, into valuable bio-based products is crucial for waste management. This process, called biochemical conversion, employs various enzymatic, microbial, or chemical reactions to break down complex organic compounds into simpler molecules like sugars, fatty acids, and amino acids. These intermediates can then be further processed into biofuels, pharmaceuticals, and other bio-derived materials, making this process promising for sustainable energy and resource management. Biochemical conversion typically includes pretreatment, enzymatic hydrolysis, fermentation, and purification. It offers a sustainable alternative to conventional fossil fuel-based production methods, reducing environmental impacts and dependence on non-renewable resources.

ABSTRACT

Astudy was undertaken at Department of Soil Science & Agrl. Chemistry, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara to standardize different amelioration techniques to prepare enriched coirpith compost. Twelve treatments were tried using different combinations of coirpith, Pleurotus spp., Schizophyllus spp., urea, rock phosphate, cowdung slurry, mushroom waste, goat manure, glyricidia and water hyacinth. The results of the various enrichment techniques revealed that the temperature in the compost in general, increased to a peak value of 47oC on the 22nd day of composting and later decreased to a stabilized value. The observed temperature of 40-50 °C found during the thermophilic stage is essential for the rapid degradation of lignocellulose, as the thermophilic microfungi and actinomycetes involved in this process thrive at that temperature. Though the pH show a hike at the initial stage of composting, it decreased and stabilized at the later stage of composting which is conducive for growth and proliferation of microbes. The treatment coirpith with Pleurotus spp., glyricidia +20% cowdung slurry and goat manure was found to be ideal for compost preparation.

Introduction

Urinalysis, the examination of normal and abnormal components of urine, is one of the most important aspect of clinical pathology that aids in accurate and timely diagnosis in veterinary practice. Urine is considered as one of the most accessible bio-fluid that can be collected using non- invasive techniques in adequate quantities. It includes the evaluation of colour, odour, turbidity, volume, pH, specific gravity, protein and glucose content, ketone bodies, blood, erythrocytes, leukocytes, epithelial cells, casts, crystal, micro-organisms, etc. Urinalysis gives us valuable information regarding the several important attributes of renal function. For example, specific gravity of urine gives valuable insights over the potential of the Henle’s loop to dilute urine and the distal convoluted tubules to concentrate urine after ruling out the extra-renal factors affecting the urine specific gravity. It is highly useful to evaluate the different types of urogenital diseases and it also provides significant information regarding several systemic disorders. It is comparatively quicker to perform and is relatively a low-cost test that could be easily done in most clinical setups.

Metabolic Processes in Bacterial Cells

All living cells are continually undergoing processes of replication, breakdown, synthesis and repair. The overall term used to describe these processes is metabolism and refers to all the different reactions that must occur in order for a cell to grow and reproduce. The pathways of metabolism are remarkably similar in all living cells. The differences that do occur usually reflect the availability of nutrients or the need for a cell to provide for a specific function. This may be secretion, storage, structural support, energy for movement, or reproduction. Our knowledge of many of the metabolic processes that occur in human cells has been derived from research on the major pathways that also occur in microbial cells.

Catabolism is the process of breakdown of complex molecules, usually with the release of energy. Anabolism refers to the synthesis of new or replacement molecules. This is an energy-requiring process. A metabolic pathway is a series of reactions in the process of metabolism.

The energy from the sun that is trapped and used to produce glucose is released when a molecule of glucose is broken down during metabolism. This complex process is called oxidation, or respiration, and consists of a number of interrelated biochemical pathways, including those of glycolysis, fermentation and aerobic respiration. Reactions that occur in the presence of oxygen are termed aerobic; those that occur in the absence of oxygen are anaerobic. Many of these reactions require the involvement of various cofactors as well as enzymes, and result in the production of energy which is captured by the synthesis of a small molecule called adenosine triphosphate (AT). ATP is termed an ‘energy-rich storage molecule’ because breakdown of ATP releases energy for use in other reactions in the cell.

ABSTRACT

Detection of disease tolerance with enhanced defense mechanism is a practical approach in crop variety improvement programme. Toxins being responsible for pathogenicity and virulence of the fungi, regenerating plants from toxin treated calli is an effective and easy approach. The response of tomato calli to the crude toxins of the foliar pathogens viz., Alternaria solani and Septoria lycopersici was studied and the changes in phenol metabolism due to toxin treatment were analysed. Crude toxins of A. solani and S. lycopersici extracted under optimum conditions were serially diluted and tomato calli were treated with different dilutions of the toxins to find out the optimum dilution at which minimum survival percentage was obtained, based on a 1-4 score. Minimum score of 1 was obtained at 1:10 dilution for A. solani and at 1:20 for S. lycopersici.

The calli of resistant (LE-625) and susceptible (CO-3) tomato varieties were treated with desired dilutions of the toxins of A. solani and S. lycopersici. Total phenolics and ortho- dihydroxy (OD) phenolics were estimated at 24 h interval to study the extent of necrosis on resistant and susceptible calli due to toxin treatment. The total and OD-phenol contents of calli of susceptible cultivar (CO-3) progressively decreased with increase in time interval consequent to the treatment of toxins of A. solani and S. lycopersici. In the resistant calli of LE-625, an initial reduction of total phenol and OD-phenol content was observed following the application of the toxins of A. solani and S. lycopersici at 24 hours after treatment. Later with lapse of time, the total phenol content and OD-phenol contents progressively increased reaching a maximum at 120 h after treatment. The results clearly indicated the enhancement of biochemical defense in the resistant calli and a fall in defense mechanism in the susceptible calli due to toxin treatment. Such techniques are useful in the preliminary screening of resistant genotypes in crops like tomato.