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Over the period of time, the dairy sector has added distinct significance to growing Indian economy. India contributes nearly 19.54% to the global annual milk production with an impressive upliftment of 3.6% in yearly production rate as per the latest available data from FAO International.

So far we studied direct stress (Tensile or compressive) and tangential stress (shear stress) acting on plane individually. But in many engineering problems these both stresses are acts on a plane at a same time. In such cases resultant stress on that plane will be neither pure normal nor purely shear but there will be combined effect of normal and shear stress.

When any beam is loaded, stresses are induced and so to calculate those stresses, shear force and bending moment acting at load or support location must be required to calculate.

Thermal stress arises whenever there is some increase or decrease in temperature of a body which causes either expansion or contraction in the dimension of body. If body is free to expand or contract, with the rise or fall of temperature, there exist no stress in the body. But if deformation of the body is partially or completely resisted then stresses are set up in the body which is known as Thermal Stress. However amount of stress induced in partially prevented deformation will be small than in case deformation is totally prevented.

Whenever a thin hanging wire is loaded, it elongates and the load moves downwards. Increase in length of wire is governed by the magnitude of the load and nature of wire material. Experimentally it is found that the cohesive force between the molecules of hanging wire offers resistance against the deformation.

Mechanical power is usually transmitted from one shaft to another by using belts, ropes, chains, gears and clutches.

1. Belts and ropes are utilized if distance between the shafts is large. Belts and ropes are flexible and bend easily. But slip occurs between the belt and the pulley.

Machine: It is a device capable to doing work on application of some effort. Work done by machine is to raise load or to lower load or to do some other types of work like rotation of shaft.

Hydraulic pumps are the devices utilized to transfer pressure energy to liquids at the expense of electrical energy. The electrical energy is transferred to a motor which converts it into mechanical work and a pump is coupled to the shaft. The pump converts the mechanical energy to hydraulic or potential energy. 

Hydraulic turbines is a device which transforms the hydraulic energy or potential energy existing with the working medium to mechanical energy. The working medium is normally water which run the hydraulic turbine. The hydraulic energy is available with water by virtue of its height or altitude. The water which flow through the mountains is stored by constructing a dam or reservoir.

The internal combustion (I.C) engines are functioning on open cycle wherin the air is taken from the atmosphere and the exhaust gases are sent back in the atmosphere. The sequence of operation in a 4-stroke petrol and diesel engine involves Suction compression expansion and exhaust. The precise investigation of I.C engines are very complex due to open cycle system, the working fluid enter and leaves at different condition, quality of fuel and its combustion which make the task more difficult.

Heat engines - A device which change heat received by fuel combustion into mechanical work is called a heat engine. It may be classified into two broad categories viz. are Internal and external combustion engines.[8]

The application of (VCRS) Vapour compressor refrigeration system is in the air conditioners (window, split, central or precision), car air conditioners, domestic refrigerator etc. The different parts of a domestic refrigerator are: in the hermetical sealed compressor, air cooled condenser, capillary tube, thermo expansion device, filter, rotameter, solenoid valve, temperature control sensor.

A refrigerant is heat transfer medium through which phase change occurs from liquid to vapour i.e. evaporation at low temperature and pressure in the evaporator and then the phase change occurs from gas to liquid i.e. condensation at high pressure and high temperature in the condenser. The cycle of phase change of refrigerant, continues in the refrigeration system.

Refrigeration mean cooling i.e. lower the temperature by artificial means. It is a process of attaining lower temperature of the space or product below the surrounding temperature. It further involves maintaining the lower temperature achieved.

“Steam generator or boiler is, usually, a closed vessel made of steel. Its function is to transfer the heat produced by the combustion of fuel (solid, liquid or gaseous) to water, and ultimately to generate steam” [4] . The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) [5] gives the following definition of the steam generating unit:

Steam is utilized in steam power plants, steam engines, atomic power plant, and food industry for pasteurization, sterilization, textile industry, paper industry and in railway to generate power. Steam is also utilized in process type industries like sugar industries, textile industries, chemical industries for sizing and bleaching. Steam is also employed to store energy and transported through pipes.

Thermodynamics is defined as the “branch of science which deals with the interaction between the heat and work”[1]. Thermodynamics is also sometimes stated as the science of energy. Thermodynamic deals with the principles of energy and energy conversion in engineering. It also considers the thermodynamic properties of substances. Thermodynamics deals with the conversion of heat into work and vice-versa.

Integrated farming system is a multidisciplinary whole farm approach, which enables the farmers to identify opportunities and threats and act accordingly. It is a dynamic approach which can be applied to any farming system around the world. It is very effective in solving the problems of small and marginal farmers.

Conservation agriculture is an approach to managing agroecosystems for improved and sustained productivity, increased profits and food security while preserving and enhancing the resource base and the environment. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations defines conservation agriculture as a farming system that promotes maintenance of a permanent soil cover, minimum soil disturbance (i.e. no tillage), and diversification of plant species.

Low external input agriculture developed as a response to the criticisms surrounding Green Revolution technology being neither sustainable nor feasible for many small-scale farmers around the world. The concept aimed to redesign the agricultural system by optimising the use of biological resources, keeping changes to the natural ecosystem as well as the use of external inputs at a minimum (Pimentel et al., 1989).

The Green Revolution started in the early 1960s that led to the attainment of self-sufficiency in food grain production. This has been considered as the greatest agricultural transformation in the history of humankind. The Green Revolution contributed to widespread poverty reduction, averted hunger for millions of people, and avoided the conversion of thousands of hectares of land into agricultural cultivation.

The objective of any cropping system is efficient utilisation of all resources such as land, water and solar radiation, maintaining stability in production and obtaining higher net returns. The efficiency is measured by the quantity of produce obtained per unit resource used in a given time.

In agriculture, the ideal management practices were developed for individual crops through regular research and feedback received from the farmers. However, farmers are growing various crops in different seasons based on their adaptability to a particular season.

In agriculture, crop production is the main activity. However, the income obtained from crops may hardly be sufficient to sustain the farm family throughout the year. Assured regular cash flow is possible when the crop is combined with other enterprises. These other enterprises or components are called allied components.

A ‘system’ is a set of interrelated, interacting and interdependent elements operating together for a common purpose and capable of reacting as a whole to external forces. It is unaffected directly by its own output and it has a specified external boundary based on the inclusion of all significant feedbacks. A ‘farm’ is a system because several activities are closely related to each other by the common use of the farm labour, land and capital, by risk distribution and by the joint use of the farmer’s management capacity.

Heart failure is a common progressive and complex clinical syndrome with high morbidity and mortality in humans. It is mostly due to cardiac involvement. Clinical signs and symptoms developed in heart failure cases are the manifestations of body’s compensatory efforts to meet chronic inadequate cardiac output as seen in other species of animals also.

The ferret is a domestic species of small mustelid. Congestive heart failure is most common form of heart disease seen in aged ferrets. Heart failure in ferrets is due to heart diseases and clinical presentation varies from no clinical signs in initial stage to many signs of fulminant heart failure.

Heart failure is the end stage of cardiac diseases. It occurs in pet birds when cardiac output is insufficient and unable to maintain arterial blood pressure. In birds right side heart failure is more common as compared to left heart failure.

With an increase in domestication of rabbits, a leporine, as pet in urban dwellings and their increased life span, risk of cardiac diseases has also increased. Heart diseases are being diagnosed in rabbits with an increasing frequency. The development of clinical signs of heart failure is gradual in rabbits causing late recognition of the heart disease.

Heart failure is not a disease but it is the end stage of heart diseases. Heart failure in horses is not very common as in dogs and cats. In horses it is characterized by the signs of forward failure, backward failure and fall in blood pressure.

Heart failure is the terminal outcome of heart diseases. It is defined as ventricular dysfunction (pump failure) leading to cardiac inability to maintain an adequate cardiac output. Heart failure is the outcome of filling defect, cardiac muscle abnormality, conduction defect, an excessive work load or a combination of these abnormalities.

Heart diseases in feline are silent killer as cats are able to hide their symptoms in early stage. Cats are brought to clinics only when disease is more advanced. Heart diseases are different from heart failure. Heart failure is the end stage of heart diseases.

Pathogenesis of heart failure in animals and humans is a complex phenomenon. The major abnormality in heart failure is myocardial contractility failure, disturbances in rhythm and rate of the heart, disturbances of pre load and after load, forward failure, backward failure, fluid accumulation, RAAS activation, hypoperfusion of organs, oxidative stress, activation of proinflammatory cytokines etc.

Syncope can be aptly defined as sudden transient loss of consciousness and postural tone due to an abrupt cerebral hypoperfusion leading to a decreased availability of essential nutrients like glucose. Recovery from syncope is mostly spontaneous without any medical intervention. 

Shock is a sequel to trauma or severe diseases such as heart failure, sepsis or acute inflammatory conditions like pancreatitis. Shock is generally associated with decreased supply and utilization of oxygen. The term shock is a chain of physiological events that can result in death if immediate rational treatment is not instituted.

The word cardiac arrest (CA) or heart attack is frightening. In animals heart attack does not occur in the manner as it occurs in humans. In humans the main cause of cardiac arrest or heart attack is coronary infarct. The prevalence of cardiac arrest or cardiopulmonary arrest (CPA) or heart attack in animals is relatively very low as coronary infarct is not a common disease in animals.

Diet plays an important role in the management of diseases. It is very much true in the management of dogs with heart failure also. Managing the diet of a dog with heart failure is depending on the severity and stage of heart failure and presence / absence of concurrent diseases as well deficiencies.

Anorexia in dogs with heart failure is very important clinical sign of concern as continued anorexia leads to weight loss and cardiac cachexia. Cardiac cachexia in dogs is the main reason that contributes to an owners’ decision to opt for euthanasia. It is therefore much more important to understand the various factors that lead to anorexia in dogs having heart failure. 

Oxygen therapy has been in vogue for more than century and it is key component in cardiorespiratory care both in human and veterinary medicine. It is recommended in all hypoxemic humans, dogs and cats (peripheral oxygen saturation < 90% to 94% or PaO2 < 70 mm Hg) presented with acute heart failure or respiratory diseases. But oxygen therapy in normoxemic subjects has remained controversial as some studies have shown detrimental effect (increased level of reactive oxygen species, oxidative stress, reduction in coronary blood flow and myocardial oxygen consumption) of oxygen therapy in subjects with normal oxygen level.

Heart failure in canine is being recognized with an increasing frequency throughout the world. It is the end stage pathological event progressively occurring in heart diseases. Heart failure is the condition in which heart is unable to meet the metabolic and nutritional demands of the tissues of the body due to insufficient cardiac output. Heart failure has also been observed with normal cardiac output in conditions like hyperthyroidism or anemia where tissue metabolic needs are increased.

The heart failure is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in animals and man. It is the end stage complex event of cardio-vascular diseases. For having a better understanding of heart failure in animals for adopting rational therapeutic management, it is utmost necessary to have thorough knowledge about heart, its structures, its nerve supplies, its vasculature, current generation and conduction as well as its functioning in the healthy subjects.

Annuals are the group of plants that complete their life cycle in one season or in one year during which they grow, flower and produce seed; and after this they wither out. A true annual (like zinnia) is a plant that will grow from seeds, flower, produce seeds and die in one season. Zinnias provide a succession of flowers for summer colour in any sunny location with good soil drainage.

• Harmony is the principle of landscaping.

• Texture is an important element of landscaping.

• Blue is a primary colour.

• Green in a secondary colour.

• Garden furniture is a tangible item.

Plant name         Cultivars

Amaranthus        NBRI, Lucknow: Amar Kiran, Amar Mosaic, Amar Parvarti, Amar

Tricolor                Prithu, Amar Raktabhy, Amar Suikiran, Amar Summer King, Amar

                            Summer Queen, Amar Tarang

1. Carnation is a

 a) Short day plant           b) Day neutral plant

 c) Long day plant            d) None of these

2. Lotus in Sanskrit is known as

 a) Water lily       b) Padma

 c) Kamala           d) Pankaja

Lotus

(Nelumbo nucifera)

Family: Nymphaeaceae/Nelumbonaceae

Origin: Southern Asia

Flower colour: White to deep pink

Plant part used: Flower (almost all parts)

Basic chromosome number: X=8

Somatic chromosome number: 2n =16

Scooping: It involves `Removing’ of basal plate and destroying the `Central Shoot’ of the bulb, thus encouraging the formation of bulblets round the cut edges of the scale leaves. Scooping is achieved by using a special knife or a spoon with a `Sharpened edge’ to leave a `Concave depression’ at the base of bulb. The depth of the cut is important, because the bulblets are formed on `cell tissues’ at the lowest point of the `scale leaves’.

Floriculture is the aesthetic branch of horticulture that deals with the cultivation of ornamentals, annuals, biennials and perennial plants as well as with their marketing. Flowers symbolize beauty, purity, peace and love. In India, it is a dynamic and expanding industry showing an impressive annual growth rate.

In the study of immunology, several techniques are used. These techniques are called immunotechniques. These techniques are used not only in immunology but are the methods for research and diagnostic purpose in many fields such as microbiology, biochemistry, endocrinology, hematology and in pathological laboratories.

One of the characteristics of the immune system is to recognize and discriminate self from the non-self antigens. But, sometimes, there is a failure to discriminate between self and non-self antigens in the body and an autoimmune response occurs. Body starts producing antibodies against its own cells/antigens. The self antigens against which the immune system responds are called autoantigens and the antibodies produced against self antigens are called autoantibodies.