eChapters

Agriculture is the predominant sector in the economy of Jammu and Kashmir. Directly and indirectly, it supports about 80 per cent of the population besides contributing nearly 60 per cent of the state revenue. The total geographical area of the state is nearly 22.2 million hectare and population of 12.5 million, which is approximately 1.04% of the national total. The J&K is divided into three agro-climatic zones: Cold arid desert areas of Ladakh, temperate Kashmir Valley and the humid sub-tropical region of Jammu. Each has its own specific geo-climatic condition which determines the cropping pattern and productivity profile.

In Jammu province, a small portion of the land lies in the plains along the borders of Punjab while the rest of the area is hilly, dominates both in maize and wheat production. About 67 per cent of the area is under maize and wheat production with the production of 21.25q/ha maize and 15.36 q/ha wheat. This region contributes 79.56 per cent and 95.69 per cent of total production of these two cereals respectively. Even though the yield is not high, the region makes appreciable contribution to the cereals production.

The second agro-climatic zone Kashmir is also known as ‘cultivator’s paradise’. The region practically depends on irrigation, which is easily available. A large area of level land has alluvial soil. Extensive elevated plateaus of the alluvial or lacustrine material (locally called Karewas) also exist in the Kashmir valley. These Karewas are productive only in the face of sufficient rainfall or adequate irrigation facilities. Rice is the chief crop of this zone, followed by maize, oat, barley and wheat.

Ladakh zone is endowed with bare rocky mountains and bare gravel slopes. Villages are located near pockets of land with level ground and irrigation facilities, where cultivation is viable. In this region, barley is the major cereal crop followed by summer wheat. Millets and wheat rank second in importance and are grown in the warmer belt of the region.

Wheat Production and Consumption

Wheat, rice, maize, barley, sorghum and the millets are the main crops that provide nutrition to people worldwide. The production of grains in different countries depends on the various factors such as water availability, soil conditions, temperature, cultural and economical are most critical factors. Nutritional needs of the developing countries are more dependent on cereal grains compared to the developed ones. Approximately 60% of the calorie requirements in the developing countries are met from cereals. The International Grains Council (IGC) forecasted for total grains production in 2017-18 to 2.079 billion tonnes. There is a need to have major research to increase their productivity, reduce storage losses, enhance efficiency of processing and to ensure food safety in the entire supply chain. Among them, wheat is one of the most important crop species and is a staple food for about 35% of the world population. Wheat is unique among the grains because of its protein type, which when mixed with the water by mechanical forces yields into viscoelastic dough due to the formation of gluten. This unique property of dough is capable of retaining the gases which are produced by yeast or baking powder resulting in the production of an array of leavened products such as bread, cookie and cake.

Wheat is also an important source of dietary proteins for humans but like other cereals, it is deficient in the essential amino acid lysine. Wheat crop is adaptable to the wide range of growth conditions compared to other major cereals and hence it is cultivated widely throughout the world. Wheat cereal is the major dominating staple in the North Africa, Central and West Asia, providing the 50% of the calorie requirement in the region. The world wheat production is 740 million tonnes, with China ranking first by producing 125 million tonnes of wheat annually. Other major wheat producing countries are India, USA, Russia Australia, France and Canada. The global per capita consumption of wheat is about 66 kg, which varies widely in different regions. In Algeria, Egypt, Israel and other Middle East as well as Eastern Europe the consumption of wheat flour is high (150 kg/year). The food uses of wheat in developing countries are more than 80%, while in developed countries it is less than 50%. The consumption of the wheat in developing countries is significantly increasing due to globalization and growing economies. After rice, wheat is a major cereal crop in India and contributes to more than 50% of the total calories. It is grown in the cooler regions of India during the period of November to April. In grain production, rice ranks first with the production of about 105 million tonnes per year. In India, total grain production is 136 million tonnes for the year 2016-17 as per the International Grains Council. India ranks second in the production of wheat in the world and produce about 95 million tonnes annually. The bread wheat (astevum) contributes to approximately 94% while durum wheat is 4% and dicoccum wheat accounts to 2%.

There have been lots of international efforts to establish crop based research centres primarily in the developing/under-developed countries to carry out concerted breeding and plant genetic resources management activities pooling germplasm from all over the world and also engaging scientists from different countries to do breeding work on the certain mandate crops of the particular region using all kinds of germplasm and technologies with strong financial support from a central agency known as Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) for doing the stipulated work as per programme and deliver the products which can be used by different national plant breeding programmes either to use them directly as cultivars or to use them in their breeding programmes in various ways including parents in the crossing programme.

CGIaR (Consultative Group on International agricultural Research)

CGIAR System Organization headquartered in Montpellier, France is a global agricultural research partnership for a food secure future that was founded in the 1970s in response to the Green Revolution. There are presently 15 CGIAR agricultural research centres employing more than 8,500 researchers and support staff worldwide, with an annual budget of US$ 800 million.

CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future. CGIAR science is dedicated to reducing poverty, enhancing food and nutrition security, and improving natural resources and ecosystem services. Its research is carried out by 15 CGIAR Research Centers in close collaboration with hundreds of partners, including national and regional research institutes, civil society organizations, academia, development organizations and the private sector. The CGIAR Fund was established as a Financial Intermediary Fund (FIF) in 2010. It was subsequently closed and replaced by a new FIF in 2017, following the CGIAR System governance reorganization.

Millets have immense potential of providing nutritional security worldwide and play a pivotal role in food and nutrition economy. The nutritional aspects of millets are comparatively superior from the widely consumed cereals across the globe. With the presence of various essential macro nutrients millets are also enriched with the goodness of micro nutrients as minerals, vitamins and possess various bioactive compounds that portray several health benefits. The nutritional attributes of the millets are accompanied with several antinutritional factors such as tannins, phytates, saponins, trypsin and amylase inhibitors etc. that limit the bioavailability of the essential nutrients and minerals in these wonder grains upon consumption.

INTRODUCTION

Sapota [Manilkara zapota (L) P. Royen] commonly known as chiku in India, is an exotic fruit crop originated in Tropical America. The name sapodilla is derived from the Spanish word zapotilla, meaning “small sapote.” Tree have dark green beautiful radiating canopy with central flag having aesthetic values.It is a popular crop widely cultivated in most tropical countries. The cultivation of sapota is a profitable venture as it does not need much spraying, pruning and it is a long-life fruit tree. Moreover, the fruit fetches good price in market as it ripens in April and May in North India, when mango and litchi fruits are scarce. At international level in India crop attained an important place in fruit industry. In India this fruit species is cultivated only for its delicious fruit for table purpose but in South America, it is cultivated for chickle the “gutta parcha” which is used as base material for chewing gum.This is extracted from bark. Sapota fruit present a climacteric behavior. In India farmer from Bordi village near Gholwad, late Sri Gopal Rao Patil realized the commercial potential of this evergreen and ever fruiting tree and procured a few plants and began to propagate for distribution among poor farmers of this area and within short time it had spread from Palghar in Maharashtra to Amalsad in Gujarat. Subsequently commercial cultivation in his region was helped by lranis and Marwari settlers. The best sapota orchards in this area belong to lranis and Marwaris. It is from this area that this fruit went to various other parts of the country like Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka, Punjab and Haryana etc. In India crop become very popular among farmers as a cash crop. There is a possibility of extending cultivation of this crop into warm and humid climate of all tropical regions of the world. In India area under this crop increasing every year. Therefore, in recent years, it has attained the status of major fruit in peninsular India. Popularity of this fruit is on increase due to high production per unit area and continuous fruiting throught out the year.

1. Introduction Ayurvedic texts like Charak Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, have described millets as the staple food useful in managing diabetes mellitus (Sachan Kumar, 2004). Based on the experience of eating these millets for time immemorial, there exists also a strong traditional knowledge about health benefits associated with them. For example, as per an adage in the state of Karnataka, India: “Those who eat rice will grow as a light weight; their body being just like that of a bird; those who eat Jowar will become as strong as a wolf but those who eat Ragi (millets) will be the strongest of them all, plus they would be free from illness (‘nirogi’ in Sanskrit)”! Certain studies from literature refer nutraceutical character of millets, especially, Kodo and Kutki, which in our opinion should help mankind in eradicating malnutrition and hunger while ensuring sustainable supply of food.

ABSTRACT
Rice straw is one of the most abundant lignocellulosic agricultural wastes in India and can be used as a major resource for biogas production. The structure of rice straw is complex and is made up mainly of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin. The lignin physically shields the cellulose and hemicelluloses, the main components which can be converted to energy, and hinders the access of microbial enzymes to these carbohydrate moieties. To overcome this making the straw a potential resource of biogas production, effective pretreatment is necessary that can efficiently hydrolyse the straw and make it accessible to cellulolytic enzymes and methanogens. Various pretreatment methods which are employed currently in the market are discussed here. For a process to be economically feasible it is necessary that the pretreatment be efficient as well as cost effective. To gain some insights into this aspect, the techno-commercial feasibility of Biomethanation of rice straw has been discussed.

The establishment of a technology transfer office is an important and complex process for an organization. It needs careful planning to ensure its long-term sustainability. Before establishing a TTO, it is essential to evaluate whether institution’s core mission includes research commercialization, and if the volume and quality of its research output justify the need for an inhouse TTO. For institutions that may not meet all criteria, those institutions can collaborate or outsource for TTO services. It is also important to decide about its operational scope, funding, management, and for what kind of issues the office should develop a policy. There is no “right” way to set up a TTO, but successful TTO does require considering some key issues. This chapter outlines key steps and considerations for establishing a TTO. It also explains what physical infrastructures are needed, manpower, outlines the responsibilities and powers of TTOs.
2.1 Evaluating the need for a TTO
Establishing a TTO is an important step for any research focused organization. But before initiating a planning process for a new TTO, the organization must review its relevance by considering a few fundamental points:
Key considerations for institutions
1. Is institution’s mission focused on “research commercialization” If an institute’s primary mission is education, or it does not support research it might not be justified to create a TTO. For such institutions, it usually makes better sense to seek alternative solutions to the occasional technology transfer without the expense of a formal office. But institutions with strong research commercialization focus, a TTO has the ability to contribute meaningfully to the mission. The Association of University Technology Managers (AUTM), USA has identified following key motivations for initiating academic technology transfer:

INTRODUCTION

Fruits and vegetables are historically important constituents of human diet and the growing awareness of consumers about the beneficial effects of these commodities could result in enhancement of global trade involving fresh and processed fruits and vegetables. Emergence of postharvest handling of fresh fruits and vegetables facilitated global trade of these commodities. The developed countries started realizing the export potential of these commodities by development of adequate value addition in terms of pretreatments, shelf life extension and packaging besides grading and other associated packing house operations. However, the trade concerning fresh fruits and vegetables could never come out completely from problems related to pesticidal residues, spoilage, bulkiness of the commodities involving transportation of inedible portions and excessive packaging costs arising out of bulkiness. The other problems associated with fresh produce include mandatory requirement of specific storage temperatures with refrigeration as the primary means of regulation of metabolic rate.

Rhododendron belongs to family Ericaceae. The word “Rhododendron” is derived from the ancient Greek word “rhódon” which means rose and “déndron” which means tree. This genus is characterized by shrubs and small to (rarely) large trees. The smallest species grow up to 10–100 cm tall and the largest Rhododendron giganteum is reported to grow over 30 m tall. They are noted for their clusters of large flowers. The alpine species have small flowers and small leaves and tropical species grow as epiphytes. The colour of the rhododendron flower is available in nearly every colour of the rainbow including various shades of blue, yellow, pink white, red, orange and purple. Rhododendron flower from January through August, depending on the location and the climate.

Introduction

India is gifted with varied agro-climatic conditions for growing an array of vegetable crops to combat the present ill-balanced diet. The brinjal belongs to the family Solanaceous and to the genus Solanum, species melongena. The egg plant, Guinea squash are some synonyms to brinjal. It is a hardy crop and does best in worm and moist climate. The crop is generally grown twice or thrice in a year. The edible part, fruit is of high nutritive value and can well be compared with tomatoes. Insect pest constitute the major limiting factors in the successful production of brinjal. Pest comples of brinjal is very high and aphid (Aphis gossypii) causes heavy damage to the crop. Aphis gossypii (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is a tiny insect or greenfly in the superfamily Aphidoidea in the order Hemiptera. It is a true bug and sucks sap from plants. It is a widely distributed pest of a variety of agricultural crops in the families Cucurbitaceae, Rutaceae and Malvaceae.

India is an agrarian country and the agriculture and allied sector is the largest employer of workforce as it accounted for a sizeable 18.8 per cent in 2021-22 in Gross Value Added (GVA) of the country (Economic Survey 2021-22).Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for about 58% of India’s population and only the food processing industry employs about 1.77 million people (Indian Agriculture and Allied Industries Industry Report, November 2021). In the year 2019-20, gross value added by agriculture, forestry, and fishing was estimated at Rs. 19.48 lakh crore (US$ 276.37 billion). But still farming community has to face lot of hardships. The farmers are still applying chemical fertilizers on the basis of their own experiences as they don’t possess the soil heath cards. Although central government has initiated Soil Health Management (SHM) scheme to assist State Governments to set up new static Soil Testing Laboratories (STLs) and Mini Soil testing Labs (MSTLs). But it is time consuming and cumbersome process. There is great opportunity for Agri-business entrepreneurs with a commercially viable solution to farmers by development of simplified, sensor based and quick soil testing methods to test the nutrients and micronutrients.

Introduction

Billions of chemical reactions are happening inside human body and that too with lightning speed. However, the same reactions if carried out in laboratory, they take a very long time. The reasons behind it are the biocatalysts, also known as enzymes, which are synthesized by living cells. Chemically, they are proteins(except ribonucleic acids: RNA), colloidal in nature, thermo-labile in character and very specific in their action. For example, hydrolysis of proteins by a strong acid at 100°C takes a couple of days; but same proteins can be digested within couple of hours inside human body at 37°C. Similarly, carbonic anhydrase is used as a catalyst by living cells to transfer carbon-di-oxide from cells to blood. This process is 107 times quicker than the same process if occurs without the help of enzymes. Therefore, enzymes can be defined as the biomolecules or biocatalysts which can speed up the rate of the chemical reactions. The substance upon which an enzyme acts is called as substrate and the one which is produced as the result of enzyme-substrate reaction is known as product.

1.1. Introduction

The significance of milk as the most wholesome single food available in nature has never been debated. It is as ancient as mankind itself, as it is the substance created to feed the mammalian infant. All species of mammals, from the lowly rat to the mighty whale, produce milk for this purpose. Several centuries ago, perhaps as early as 6000-8000 BC, ancient man learned to domesticate species of animals for obtaining their milk for consumption. These included cows, buffalos, sheep, goats and camels, all of which are still used in various parts of the world for the production of milk for human use (Fig. 1.1 & 1.2).

Introduction
Legumes that produce dry seed suitable for human consumption are known as pulses, and they are agronomically valuable plants in the field and in the food chain. In the past ten years, grain legumes—particularly pulses—have become more popular as a means of addressing global agricultural concerns. (Bohra et al. 2015, Varshney et al. 2015).The best plant-based sources of dietary protein, as well as other minerals including iron, zinc, magnesium, and dietary fiber, are pulses. (Bohra et al.2014, Kouris-Blazos and Belski 2016, Maphosa and Jideani 2017). According to Simpson and Campbell (2015), a plant-based agricultural diet high in fruit or legume fiber helps to improve microbial diversity and has a beneficial effect on short-chain fatty acid levels, both of which are critical for preserving gut health. Because of their unique ability to fix nitrogen symbiotically with Rhizobium spp. in their root nodules, legumes not only improve nutritional health but also increase soil fertility (Graham and Vance 2003, Stagnariet al. 2017). The Leguminosae, often known as the Fabaceae, are the third largest family of flowering plants, behind the orchid (Orchidaceae) and sunflower (Asteraceae) families (Walters 1960), with 750 genera and 20,000 species (Polhill 1981).With a productivity of 1016 kg ha-1, 93.23 million tons (m t) of pulses are harvested worldwide from 91.77 million (m ha) of land (http://faostat.fao.org/). With a cumulative average productivity of 1030 kg ha-1, the major pulse crops—dry bean (primarily common bean), chickpea, dry pea (pea), cowpea, pigeonpea, lentil, and faba bean—share 92.58% (84.05 million ha) of the world’s total pulse production, or 92.82 percent (86.53 m t) (http://faostat.fao.org/). According to their ability to adapt to tropical and temperate agroclimatic conditions, pulse crops can be broadly divided into two groups: 1) warm season crops, such as common bean, pigeonpea, and cowpea, and 2) cool season crops, such as pea, chickpea, lentil, and faba bean (Cannon et al. 2009, Young et al. 2003, Zhu et al. 2005). Chickpea, pea, and lentil are regarded as one of the founding grain crops and helped start modern agriculture because of its early domestication (around 11,000 years ago) (Zohary and Hopf 2000).Over the past 60 years, the global area under pulses has increased from 64 to 91.77 million hectares (http://faostat.fao.org/), and numerous high-yielding varieties have been developed and released as a result of extensive research on conventional breeding for pulse improvement due to their high agricultural value (Singh 2005, Saxena 2008, Pérez de la Vega et al. 2011, Torres et al. 2011, Gaur et al. 2012).Pulses are less productive than other crops, particularly cereals, due to factors such growing in risky settings, unpredictable rainfall, extended dry spells, and susceptibility to a range of pests and diseases (Borlaug 1973, Varshney et al. 2013a).

INTRODUCTION

Packaging is an important aspect in modern life and in fact the word ‘packaging’ developed a literal value indicating presentation of an issue or material in a comprehensive and compact manner. Food packaging has become a revolutionary trend and plays a dominant role in the promotion of marketing of various fresh and processed food products. The reason could be a number of aspects inclusive of protective, legal and aesthetic elements. The industrial revolution in the late 18th century caused major impact on manufacturing process. Without appropriate packaging no food is acceptable and even in the common household food packaging is being practiced in its own way to render food safety and convenience for various culinary operations. Therefore, food packaging needs to be considered as an essential element of food processing and marketing and it is one of the key areas in food technology making rapid strides in research and development.

Introduction

Stress in physics is any force applied to an object. Stress in biology is any change in environmental conditions that might reduce or adversely change a plant’s growth or development. ‘Stress’ or ‘pressure’ was introduced into the theory of elasticity as an amount of force for a given unit area. When sufficient force is applied to material, the material bends and the change in length is termed ‘strain’. With increasing stress, the initially linear relationship between stress and strain becomes nonlinear until the proportionality limit, after which the material deforms elastically (it can bend back), then plastically (it cannot bend back) until it ruptures. Since the 1930s, biologists have attempted to apply this terminology to biological systems, albeit the nature of the stresses will vary between nonliving materials and organisms.

AGRICULTURAL WASTE: The characteristics of the agricultural waste materials make them important in respect of their use and economic value. Agricultural wastes can he put to use because (1) Farm development (improvement of soil health, soil fertility, soil physical conditions and plant protection), it is the source of energy and power, (3) it acts as animal feed and fodder, (4) it is the human food

Abstract
India, recognized as leading producer of fruits, holds a significant position in global grape cultivation. This chapter comprehensively examines the export performance of fresh grapes from India, focusing on growth patterns, market diversification, competitiveness, and trade direction. During 2019-20, India exported over 193 thousand metric tons of grapes worth Rs. 2,176.88 crores, with the Netherlands, Russia, and the UK being key markets. Using compound annual growth rate (CAGR) analysis, the study finds significant positive trends in grape exports across major destinations. Instability indices reveal moderate fluctuations, with Bangladesh and Hong Kong showing the highest volatility, whereas the UAE demonstrated market stability. The decreasing trend in the Hirschman index indicates growing diversification in India’s grape exports. Comparative advantage analysis (RSCA) suggests India gained competitiveness post-2015. Nominal Protection Coefficient (NPC) values below unity further underscore India’s export price advantage. Mark Chain analysis reveals stable future prospects, with Netherlands projected to remain India’s top grape importer through 2022-23. The findings provide strategic insights for exporters and policymakers to strengthen India’s position in global grape markets by aligning trade efforts with loyal importers and emerging high-value destinations.
Keywords: Fresh Grapes Exports, Instability Index, Geographical Concentration Index, Export Competitiveness and Markov Chain Analysis

Lipids are a hetrogenous group of substances, widely distributed throughout the plant and animal kingdom. In plants they are present in the seeds nuts and fruits, while in the animals they are stored in adipose tissues, bone marrow and nervous tissues. Lipids are relatively insoluble in water and readily soluble in organic solvents such as ether, chloroform, carbon disulfide, benzene, hot alcohol etc. The term lipid was used by the German biochemist Bloor in 1943 for a major class of tissue components and foodstuffs.