eChapters

INTRODUCTION

Strelitzia is known as Bird of Paradise. The uniquely shaped flower of this exotic tropical resembles a head of bird and due to its brilliant orange and blue colour and unusual form, it resembles not any bird but a bird of paradise. Its another common name, Erane flower is another bow to its exotic avian shape. Fantastically handsome flowers aside, this is also a very attractive foliage plant resembling the related heliconia in vegetative appearance. Due to the brilliant colour and unique appearance of the flower, it is exceptionally popular as a cut flower which appears periodically throughout the year. Therefore, it is cultivated in different countries for cut flower production to supply it in local and export markets. Commercial production of cut bloom is done in California, Hawaii, Israel, France, South Africa and Japan.

Bird of paradise occupies a place of pride in the garden and is an important choice for landscaping. It is grown in backyard and also for mass effect. Plants of strelitzia can be used in the landscape in a low growing ground cover to enhance the beauty of garden. They serve well anchoring island beds when surrounded by lower growing annuals or ground cover. It can also be used in shrub borders and adaptable beauty is perfect for home and commercial interiors.

INTRODUCTION

Gloriosa is commonly known as glory or gloriosa lily. Gloriosa lilies have assumed an important place in flower trade and are widely grown for cut flower and tuber production both in USA and Europe. Gloriosa lily is the national flower emblem of Zambia. Their cut flower stems last well in summer heat and their buds take lon time to open after picking. The bright vibrant and intense, red, gold, lemon and pink flower colours and the lush green leaves of gloriosa lilies bring a sense of the tropics or festivity to room. They combine well with many other flowers from roses to heliconias. Gloriosa blooms make perfect posies for the office desk, bedside cabinets or small tables and shelves. The stiff stems of gloriosa and their ability to hold their form out of water for a longer time make them ideal for out of water floral installation work. They are light climbers and are suitable for training on low walls or trellis. With proper trailing they can also be grown in pots. Its flowers are fascinating and its tubers and seeds have great medicinal value. The tubers are rich in alkaloids. Colchicine has been obtained from various plant parts viz., young leaves, flowers, old leaves, tubers, seeds and stems.

INTRODUCTION

Liatris is a group of versatile and popular wild flowers of North America. It is commonly called as Blazing Star or Gay Feather and can be found growing in dry or damp places, uncultivated fields, thin woods or sunny locations. It is suitable for herbaceous border, wild gardens, cut flower and dry flower. Liatris spp. take up minimal space and are suitable for even very small gardens. Long floral spikes of liatris create a mesmerizing effect when arranged in bouquets as well as when grown in gardens.

One of the reasons for such popularity of liatris as cut flower is its ease of culture, durability, long season of bloom and the most important thing being its unusual mode of blooming. Unlike most other flowers produced in spikes, liatris open from the top to downward, i.e. basipetally. Liatris grow about 60-180 cm in height, stiff, erect and hardy perennials having linear (long and narrow) grass like leaves. The flowers are purple or white, lavender to mauve, composed of multiple florets which are arranged in a wandlike spike covering top one third of the stem. With increasing popularity, their demand as a cut flower crop for both greenhouse and outdoor production has increased. Purple varieties are in greater demand. Liatris spicata, L. aspera and L. pycnostachya are the major commercial species.

INTRODUCTION

In many cultures, fresh cut flowers are deeply symbolic, conveying the message of nature to man. In recent times revolutionary changes have been seen in Indian floriculture sector which is due to the introduction of various annuals from abroad. Snapdragon too is the one of the relatively recent introduction in the field of cut flowers. Now-a-days, snapdragons are usually grown as annuals, though traditionally they are cultivated as perennials. Due to its curious shape of flowers, which resemble a dog, rabbit or dragon, it is popularly called as snapdragon, dog flower, bunny rabbit or bunny mouth. Snapdragons are one of the most popular and widely grown garden annuals. It is ideally suited for beds, pot, edging, window boxes, herbaceous border and rock gardens. Tall cultivars can be used among the shrubs, at the background of the annuals like hollyhock, larkspur, etc. in mixed borders or with herbaceous plants. The intermediate cultivars are very useful for bedding and potting purposes. Both these types are excellent for cut flower production. The dwarf cultivars are good for edging and bordering formal beds. The dwarf hybrids are suitable for covering the patches in rock garden. They are used in floral arrangements and in bouquets too. Their production for cut flower purpose began with the introduction of a winter flowering cultivar Chevoit Maid, followed by several F₁ hybrids with desirable cut flower qualities. The F₁ hybrids are grown all the year round. Flowers have good keeping quality, as they remain fresh for 6-7 days. Snapdragon has also been reported to have medicinal importance. It has diuretic and astringent properties and have been employed for the treatment of scurvy, liver tumor and ulcers.

INTRODUCTION

Stock or Gilly flower is an annual or biennial plant flowering in terminal clusters. It exists as both single and double forms and is valued for fragrant flowers that can be used as fresh or dried cut flower. Stocks are a most valuable race of garden plants for they are easy to grow and can be in bloom during the greater part of the year. They are excellent pot plants for the greenhouse in winter and spring and provide good cut flowers. Flowers are well arranged on a long column and the colours are variable from white to rose, crimson, purple, yellow, mauve, pink, etc. Seeds of stock are aphrodisiac, bitter, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant and are used as tonic. An infusion has been used in the treatment of cancer and when mixed with wine, it has been used as an antidote to poisonous bites. The highly fragrant flowers are used as a garnish, especially with sweet deserts.

Flower growing, once used to be a gardener’s activity has today transformed into an astounding business proportion. Globally, more than 140 countries are involved in cultivation of floriculture crops. The global floriculture trade stands at US $ 60 billion with an annual growth rate of 10-15%. But the picture is not all that rosy. The extensive use of pesticides especially in greenhouse grown crops is threatening workers health and safety, besides disturbing environment and may also affect consumers health.

Gaston Dorren and Niala Maharaj, authors of “The Game of the Rose” noted that floriculture consumes more pesticides than any other agricultural sector. Floral workers suffer the brunt of the trade’s pesticide use. About 60% of Colombian flower workers (the sprayers and handlers) suffer from headaches, nausea, impaired vision, rashes and asthma, reports Pesticide Action Network, North America. A study published by the Netherlands ‘Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment’, reports that Dutch floral workers are exposed to pesticide concentrations of up to 60 times the amount considered safe.

Dr. Marion Moses of the San Francisco-based Pesticide Education Center says that many of the pesticides in use are highly toxic. “One of the chemicals widely used in greenhouses for flowers is temik (aldicarb), and that has caused serious problems”. Methyl bromide, an ozone destroyer and a category I acute toxin, among the most dangerous toxic substances known, is also heavily used in Latin America and the U.S. on flower crops. According to a 1997 EWG (Environmental Working Group) study, California-grown roses have 1000 times the level of cancer causing pesticides as comparable food products. Consumers are buying roses that, toxicity levels suggest, should be handled by workers wearing protective gear. Testing the leaves and petals of roses from California, New Hampshire, Colorado, Canada and Colombia, EWG found two probable human carcinogens, three Category I pesticides (the most hazardous) and three neurotoxins at up to 50 times the amount allowed in food.

Several attempts have been made to detect the biopotentials of microorganisms with reference to their ability to produce various enzymes with a view to use them in industrial processes and bioremediation applications. Enzymes are increasingly used as a new route to synthesize food ingredients such as flavours, emulsifiers, sweeteners, food additives, nutrients. With the advent of genetic engineering, a wide range of enzymes has become available on a large scale and this has increased the scope of enzyme technology.

MICROBIAL ENZYMES: Enzymes are proteinaceous complex organic catalysts of biological origin and vital constituents of cells. Microbes produce a variety of enzymes, intracellular and extracellular enzymes. Most of the microbial enzymes produced for commercial usage are extra cellular enzymes. Extracellular enzymes are secreted outside the cell and hydrolyze polymeric substances. Amylases and proteases are enzymes of economic importance. At present over 60 enzymes are in commercial use, of which three-quarters are hydrolytic enzymes. Commercial production of microbial enzymes utilizes a variety of fungi, yeasts and bacteria. The composition of the medium, genetic stability of the microbial strain and physical and chemical factors of fermentation influence the production of a particular enzyme.

Enzymes catalyze a variety of reactions during processing and preservation of food products and form a large group of processing aids. Food industry utilizes enzymes in the production of bakery items, dairy products, fruits and vegetables juices and products, tenderization of meat, modification of oils and fats, flavour production and preservation of food products. Enzymes have also found use in the manufacture of ingredients like glucose, high fructose syrup, citric acid, colour and flavour constituents.

15.1 CONTAMINATION

Milk is sterile at secretion in the udder, but contaminated by bacteria when it leaves the udder of a healthy cow. Milk is subject to contamination from the animal and adjacent areas. Bacteria found in manure, soil and water may enter milk from these sources. Certain diseases may be transmitted through milk, from a cow. It is essential that cows producing milk should be free from any contagious or infectious disease. Bovine tuberculosis comes from consumption of milk of tuberculous cows. Tuberculosis, brucellosis, mastitis and actinomycosis are the human disease transmitted through milk. The disease producing bacteria may find their way into milk and cause infectious diseases in children and adults.

COMMON BACTERIA IN MILK: The common bacteria found in milk are: Rickettsia, Coxiella burnetii, lactic acid bacteria, Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Streptococcus thermophilus, aerobic rods, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, anaerobic bacteria, Clostridium butyricum .

Sources of Microbial contamination: Milk contains relatively few bacteria when it leaves the udder of a healthy cow. Milk is subject to contamination from the animal udder, skin and adjacent areas barn yard, milk utensils, milkers. Bacteria found in manure, soil and water may enter milk from these sources.

Fungi cause diseases in plants and animals and in such diseases, the fungi actively grow and invade the body of their hosts. There is another means by which fungi can cause harm is growing on stored food material that we consume and produce toxic metabolites referred to as mycotoxins (means fungus poisons). Food is particularly susceptible to fungal infections at almost every stage of storage or production. Mycotoxin is toxic substance produced by a fungus. The term is restricted to toxins produced by fungi growing in human foods or animal feeds. The growth of the fungi in food grains leading to physical spoilage of grains and toxin production is a serious problem in developing countries. Their occurrence in food and feed has both economic and health implications, as the toxic effects in human beings, animals and other living systems were well established. The effects of poisoning by mycotoxin are referred to as mycotoxicoses.

Yeasts

Yeasts are non filamentous, unicellular fungi that are typically spherical or oval. Like molds, yeasts are widely distributed in nature; they are frequently found as a white powdery coating on fruits and leaves.

A five-kingdom classification system fails to classify viruses because they are not considered to be living. They neither reproduce independently nor utilize energy

General properties of virus

Viruses differ fundamentally from other classes of microorganism in that:

1.They are ultramicroscopic disease-producing entities.

2.They are simple in structure, basically composed of nucleic acid wrapped up in a protein coat.

3.The genome nucleic acid is either DNA or RNA , either single stranded or double stranded, but never both

4.Viruses have no metabolic activity of their own and lack enzyme systems and other constituents fundamental for independent growth and multiplication.

5.They do not posses ribosomes, nor transfer RNA and enzymes required for synthesis of nucleic acids and proteins.

6.Viruses are incapable of growth and division.

Despite widespread occurrence and its potency to inflict heavy causalities and damage to economy, generalizations could not be made to define “drought” – leave alone characterization, development of predictive model and common mitigation measures. Regional variation, be it definition or symptoms or causative factors or consequences and mitigation measures is the hallmark of drought. This chapter is an attempt to present a review on characteristics of drought for the benefit of devising mitigation and reclamation measures.

INTRODUCTION

“Drought” denotes the meteorological, agricultural, environmental, climatic, social, economic and political consequences of a gap between the water availability and demands for the needs of domestic, irrigational, industrial, commercial and recreational consumption in an area over extended period of time. As these demands vary from region to region and depend on too many parameters such as quantum of rainfall, geological and soil characteristics, land use, population, economic activity, climatic conditions, population and culture, drought conditions of an area may not have characteristics of some other region.

Many types of geological hazards namely, tsunami, earthquakes, tsunami, floods and drought affect coastal areas like any other place on the Earth. As coastal regions are thickly populated and have abundant urban, industrial and recreational establishments, impacts of geohazards are always severe along coastal regions. Compliance to coastal zone regulations, with protection of sanddunesandmangroveswillbe the best mechanism to minimizethe damages from such hazards. In future, climate change may result in more hazards such as erratic rainfall and increase the frequency of droughts, floods and storm surges, etc. In this context, proposed coastal management zone for the coastal protection, disaster mitigation and management tools in coastal areas are examined in this chapter. It is suggested that extensive use of GIS and development of Geodatabase for the risk prone areas will serve as efficient tool for planners and policy makers to deal with geological hazards. In addition, it is felt that more efforts are needed in legal and institutional framework for integrated disaster management planning on local as well as national level.

INTRODUCTION

Geologic hazards are natural geological processes that inflict severe damage in areas of their operation if the area is utilized by anthropogenic activity in terms of habitation, industrial, recreational or commercial establishments. Many a times, natural geological processes that operated uninhibited for millions of years turn into geological hazards due to human intervention. These losses – lives and economic are not evenly distributed and are more prevalent in the developing countries due to higher population concentration and low level of economic growth. United Nations had realized the need of reducing these losses due to natural disasters and declared the last decade (1991-2000) as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. Objective of this proclamation was to reduce, through concerted efforts, the loss of life, property damage and socio-economic disruption caused by the natural disasters particularly in the developing countries (Tewar, 2000).

3.1 Introduction

Crystallography is the science of crystals. The term crystal is derived from the Greek word “Crystallos” which means “ice”. The term was used for colorless quartz which was believed to be “fossilized” ice. Crystals are bodies bounded by flat surface, arranged on a definite plan which is an expression of the internal arrangement of the atoms. They are formed by consolidation of magma which is also considered as crystallization.

3.2 Terms in Use to Describe a "Crystal"

3.2.1 Faces

Faces are the plane surface in a crystal. The common faces are usually parallel to net planes containing the greatest number of lattice points or ions. Wide spacing between the net planes leads to development of faces in these planes. Faces are two types like and unlike faces.

Abstract

The drainage pattern and the architecture are the reflections of not only the tectono fabric of a region, but also the active tectonic processes. From amongst many drainage patterns and anomalies, the eyed drainages, deflected drainages and the compressed meanders interpreted from satellite images for Pudukkottai region of Southern Tamil Nadu infer to reflect the active N-S block faults and NE-SW sinistral and NW-SE dextral faults related to post collision tectonic phenomena.

Introduction

The Geoscientists have long back recognized that the drainages are the reflections of the surface and subsurface lithology, structure and tectano fabric and also the active tectonic movements especially of the Quaternary period (Thornbury, 1985). Hence, the Geoscientists have all along been showing greater interest in mapping the drainage patterns. However, the mapping of the drainage patterns and detection of tectonic features there from have gained greater momentum only after the advent of modern Remote Sensing technology. Since the airborne and satellite borne spectral images have the credentials of showing the drainage pattern, the drainage anomalies and the tectonic features related to them all of which were studied in conjunction to bring out information on the geological history of the Quaternary period by many workers (Vaidyanadhan, 1971; Murthy and Sastri, 1981; Agarwal and Mitra, 1991; Ramasamy, 1991; Saravanavel and Ramasamy, 2014).

Goats are used primarily for milk and meat production, but their skin is also a valuable by- product. Goats are an important source of hides and skin . The term hide is used to denote the outer covering of large animals such as cows, buffaloes, horses ,sheep, camel etc. The term “Skin” is applied to that of smaller animals such as sheep, goats , calves etc. Raw hides and skins are used mainly for the manufacture of leather.Goat skin is in great demand for making leather gloves , shoes , luggage, book covers etc.Goat skin was also used in many of the musical instruments .Goat skin has been used since time immemorial as water-containers. The water containers from goat skin were called “Mushk” and the person carrying such containers as “Bhisti”.Pelt is undressed skin of sheep & goats. To prevent putrefication, the skin is treated as well as preserved by dry salting and are graded according to curled type quality of the skin.

The Leather Industry holds a prominent place in the Indian economy. India produces 13.14% of the goat skin production of the world.This sector is known for its consistency in high export earnings and it is among the top ten foreign exchange earners for the country. With an annual turnover of over US$ 7 billion, the export of leather and leather products increased manifold over the past decades and touched US$ 3.40 billion in 2009-10; recording a cumulative annual growth rate of about 5.43% (5 years).It is estimaed that 72.3 million goat skins were produced in India in 2008 (FAOSTAT). India ranks second among the goat skin producing countries of the world, second only to China. India produced 130 thousand tones of goat skin in 2008 ( FAOSTAT) against China producing 351.7 thousand tones and Pakistan 94 thousand tonnes (FAO Stat).

The major production centers for leather and leather products are located in Tamil Nadu - Chennai, Ambur, Ranipet, Vaniyambadi, Trichy, Dindigul ; West Bengal –Kolkata ; Uttar Pradesh –Kanpur, Agra & Noida ; Maharashtra –Mumbai; Punjab –Jallandhar ; Karnataka –Bangalore ; Andhra Pradesh - Hyderabad ; Haryana - Ambala, Gurgaon, Panchkula and Karnal; Delhi. India is the second largest producer of leather footwear and garments in the world.

Onion

Genetic Resources

In onion, much variation exists in bulb characteristics for size, shape, colour of skin and flesh, number of hearts, skin retention, firmness, pungency, TSS, yield etc. Bulbs may be white, red, brown or yellow, round, globe, flat or spindle shaped. Diversity is also found in field tolerance to Stemphyllium blight, purple blotch, basal rot and thrips. Various workers have also reported tolerance to soil salinity, reduced bolting, keeping quality and high dry matter content. In India, NBPGR, New Delhi, is a nodal agency engaged in collection, evaluation and maintenance of onion germplasms both from indigenous and exotic collections. Accessions numbering more than 1,000 onion germplasm lines are being maintained at NBPGR, New Delhi. Other centres maintaining sizeable number of germplasms are IIHR, Bangalore, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, NHRDF also NRC on Onion and Garlic, Nasik; IARI, New Delhi, PAU, Ludhiana and IIVR, Varanasi. Indigenous collections account for more than 95% of the germplasm lines maintained in onion, which indicates the existence of large amount of variability within the country for short-day onions. However, it also indicates the necessity to enrich the existing germplasm pool by importing more exotic collections. Promising germplasms for different attributes are given in Table1.

4.1 Introduction

The objective of this chapter is to design a mobile app for agricultural field automation with Blynk app. Mobile app is designed to control the water management in field as per requirement. The complete system comprises of two sections sensor node and mobile app. Sensor node comprises of Node MCU, Power supply, LCD, Relay board, soil sensor and Ultrasonic sensor. The system is designed to establish control and communication with specific agricultural field to take sensory data from soil and ultrasonic level sensor and control the PUMP IN motor and PUMP OUT motor with the help of mobile app.Fig.4.1 shows a block diagram for a system to control specific agricultural field with mobile app and IoT modem.

7.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the development of data logger of agricultural field parameter monitoring system with MATLAB. The system comprises of Arduino, water level sensor, humidity sensor, light sensor, soil moisture sensor, temperature sensor, smoke detector, power supply, PC with MATLAB. The system is designed to monitor the environment and agriculture field parameters. The field device is designed to collect all physical parameters and same is communicated serially to MATLAB with I/O package. Fig.7.1 shows block diagram of the system. Table.7.1 shows the component list required to develop the system.

I. FILL UPS

1. A _____ is an unbranched, indeterminate inflorescence with pedicellate flowers along the axis.
2. A _____ is a type of raceme with flowers that do not have a pedicel.
3. An _____ is a type of raceme with a short axis and multiple floral pedicels of equal length that appear to arise from a common point.
4. Indeterminate simple inflorescences are generally called _____.
5. Determinate simple inflorescences are generally called _____.
6. A compound raceme is often called a _____.
7. _____ are umbels in which the single flowers are replaced by many smaller umbels called umbellets.
8. _____ is the pollen producing part of a flower, usually with a slender filament supporting the anther.
9. _____ is the part of the stamen where pollen is produced.
10. _____ is the ovule producing part of a flower.

I. FILL UPS

1. A seed is defined as a _____ or a reproductive unit formed from fertilized ovule, consisting of an embryo, reserve food and a protective cover.
2. A seed is defined as a mature ovule or a reproductive unit formed from _____ consisting of an embryo, reserve food and a protective cover.
3. A seed is defined as a mature ovule, or a reproductive unit formed from fertilized ovule, consisting of an _____, reserve food and a protective cover.
4. A seed is defined as a mature ovule or a reproductive unit formed from fertilized ovule, consisting of an embryo, _____ and a protective cover.
5. Seed acts as a carrier of _____.
6. Seed must ensure high _____ (true to type).
7. Seed must be viable and have good _____ capacity

I. FILL UPS

1. A specified quantity of seed which is physically identifiable to the types of which certificate may be issued is called _____.
2. Taking small portions of seed random from different position of the lot and combining them is _____ of a seed lot.
3. A small portion taken from representative part of the seed lot is called _____.
4. A mixture of all primary samples taken from the seed lot is called _____.

1. Decorticator is used for shelling pods in

   a) Bhendi

   b) Maize

   c) Groundnut

   d) Sunflower

2. Debearders are used in processing of

   a) Barley

   b) Oats

   c) Wheat

   d) Rice

1. Pomology word is derived from a—————————

   a) Greek word

   b) Latin word

   c) English word

   d) None of these

2. Deficiency of ————————vitamin causes scurvy.

   a) A

   b) B

   c) C

   d) D

1. The normal gestation period of buffalo is

   a) 280 days

   b) 290 days

   c) 300 days

   d) 310 days

2. The best crop of silage making is

   a) Maize

   b) Jowar

   c) Bajra

   d) Lucerne

Vegetable seed drying is the most critical stage for any shop floor activities. Only properly dried seed will be taken for processing and all the other activities from seed receipt to storage. Seed producers harvest the seed which will have more moisture than packaged seed. For example onion seed harvested when its moisture at 60% but eventually dried to 10-12% for safe storage and packaging. Seed drying is highly skilled and specialized activity without affecting the seed quality. Proper drying procedures are vital for storage and field performance of seed lots. Drying prevents germination of the seed, the growth of bacteria and mould and it reduces the conditions for development of insects. The moisture content of a seed is influenced by the humidity of the air because they are very hygroscopic in nature. The more moisture in the air, the higher the moisture content of the product. If seed are harvested during warm, humid weather, the moisture content of the seed will be high because the relative humidity of the air is high as well. It is necessary to dry the seed before it can be stored safely. The method of drying depends on the local conditions (climate, season, volume of the seed, type of seed etc)

Vegetable seed drying is the most critical stage for any shop floor activities. Only properly dried seed will be taken for processing and all the other activities from seed receipt to storage. Seed producers harvest the seed which will have more moisture than packaged seed. For example onion seed harvested when its moisture at 60% but eventually dried to 10-12% for safe storage and packaging. Seed drying is highly skilled and specialized activity without affecting the seed quality. Proper drying procedures are vital for storage and field performance of seed lots. Drying prevents germination of the seed, the growth of bacteria and mould and it reduces the conditions for development of insects. The moisture content of a seed is influenced by the humidity of the air because they are very hygroscopic in nature. The more moisture in the air, the higher the moisture content of the product. If seed are harvested during warm, humid weather, the moisture content of the seed will be high because the relative humidity of the air is high as well. It is necessary to dry the seed before it can be stored safely. The method of drying depends on the local conditions (climate, season, volume of the seed, type of seed etc)

Soil regeneration is about bulding or making topsoil. It is a particular form of ecological regeneration within the field of restoration ecology is the act/idea of replenishingthe top soil with beneficial nutrients casing natural methods. Time required from inorganic to organic would be about 60 to 200 days depending upon the situation. Once the inorganic fertilization is stopped, following actions facilitate quick conversion:

• Apply Farm yard/Poultry manure available in the farm as a basal dressing.
• Sow 25 kg of multi varietal seeds (MVS) in one acre.
• Allow it to grow up to 60 days.
• Inoculate the soil with the bio-agents like Azospirillum, Phosphobacterium, Pseudomonas flouresens, Trichoderma viride on 30 days after sowing (DAS).
• Incorporate in situ 60 DAS (30 t ha^-1 biomass is generated on 60 DAS) green manures.

12.1. General Practices for Storage

• Lime juice is mixed with grains and then sun dried before storage to prevent insect pests (Farmers in Nigeria).
• Seeds are safely stored in earthern pots after mixing with the leaves of neem and Vitex negundo (Farmers in Gujarat, India).
• Drying seeds and grains of all the crops on the new moon day before storing to avoid pest attack.
• Store seed materials in earthen pots which are kept on the ‘Paran’ directly above the furnace in kitchen. The smoke acts as a repellent.
• Grains, trees etc. harvested on full moon day are raqre prone to storage pest attack.
• Mixing the dried leaves of neem with seeds while storing them.

Realizing that nematodes cannot be eliminated, and that we must live with them, the overall goal is to keep the population density as low as possible. The economic threshold is the density of nematodes where the losses incurred exceed the cost of nematode management. It is not advisable to depend on a single method to control nematodes. Efficient management requires judicious and careful integration of several which will result in reduction of nematode populations. Important components of non chemical methods of nematode management program are considered in this chapter.

17.1. Organic Amendments

Manure and fertilizer applications are essential part of growing any crop. Besides supplying required essential nutrients theyhelp in many ways directly or indirectly by suppressing harmful organisms including phytonematodes. The use of organic amendments against nematodes was demonstrated by Linford et al., in as early as 1938. FYM and cattle urine have found to reduce nematode population. Biogas plant waste slurry was found to be effective for nematode management. Compost of water hyacinth, oilcakes, cellulose amendments like sawdust, wheat straw, rice husk, rice hull ash, green manuring with legumes, green leaf incorporation are useful to keep nematode populations low. Non - edible oilcakes like those of neem, karanj, mahua, caster, cotton as well as edible oilcakes groundnut, mustard sesame, coconut have been recommended at 2 - 2.5 t/ha for reduction of root knot and other nematode population in soil. Miscellaneous substances like decaffeinated tea waste, rice hull ash, chicken manure, tannery and food and fruit processing waste, market and domestic organic refuse, dead vegetation and crop stalks, wood shaving, etc. have been recommended for root knot nematode management. Castor leaves (40g/kg) along with NPK at 75:25:37.5 kg/ha achieved reduction of M. javanica population on tomato.

In food production remarkable progress has been made in the last fifty years in agricultural production and self – sufficiency (Food security) has been reached. Yet nutritional security seems to be a distant goal. With depleting natural resources and increasing threat to the environment, sustainable crop production is attracting the attention of the scientists, farmers and administrators. Due to over exploitation of natural resources and indiscriminate use of agro chemicals, green revolution also brought in quite a lot of miseries which focus the urgent need to have EVERGREEN REVOLUTION that is sustainable, leading to food and nutritional security to the rural poor. At this juncture it will be more appropriate to practicing organic agriculrure through the integration of traditional wisdom and modern scientific knowledge in synergy with nature.

19.1. Eco-friendly Technologies for Rice Cultivation

A sound package of eco-friendly technologies to grow rice is being successfully adopted by a few progressive farmers in Puliangudi village in Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu. “The technologies work well with indigenous rice varieties such as Kitchili Samba. The cost of cultivation is substantially reduced and the organic rice fetches a premium price in the market,” says Mr. P. Gomathinayagam, a pioneer in organic farming in Puliangudi.

INTRODUCTION

The Cultural practices which includes manipulation /or adjustment of crop production techniques have been as old as possibly agriculture itself. In early stages of agriculture development, the growers through their experiences and observations had known that repeated cultivation of a particular crop species or variety on a piece of land often resulted in crop sickness. By proper crop rotations they had been avoiding such sickness. As a matter of fact, in the present day agriculture, cultural practices are being considered as essential backup methods for plant disease management. Cultural practices often offer the opportunity to alter the environment, the condition of the host, and/or the behavior of the causal agent, to achieve economic management of disease. Most cultural practices used to control plant disease are preventive in nature. Integration of cultural practices, host resistance and pesticides or biocontrol agents may be necessary to provide options for controlling economically important plant diseases

9.1. STATISTICAL METHODS

Measures of central tendency : Three measure of the central tendency of a frequency distribution are mean, median and mode.

1. Mean / average / arithmetic mean : It is sum of all of the data values divided by the number of data values and it affected by extreme values.
2. Median : It is the middle value of the data set when it has been arranged in ascending or descending order. This is not at all affected by extreme values.
3. Mode : It is the value that occurs most often in a distribution. Not affected by extreme values. It used to find the ideal size of different age group. eg: size of readymade garments, shoe size

   Harmonic mean : Reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocal of a given value. It deals with rate, price and speed.

Measures of dispersion : It is the degree to which the data tend to spread about the mean value is called dispersion.

1. Range : The range of a distribution with a discrete random variable is the difference between the maximum value and the minimum value.
2. Standard Deviation (SD) : It is the square root of the arithmetic mean of the squares of the deviations measures for the mean or square root of the variance.
3. Variance : It is the average of the squared deviation from the mean or the square of the standard deviation
4. Standard Error (SE) : It is the measure of the mean difference between sample estimate of mean (X) and the population parameter (μ).
5. Coefficient of Variation (CV): It is defined as the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean. This is expressed as percentage.

Free radicals, such as singlet oxygen (¹_O2), superoxide (O₂ ^.–) and some active derivatives of oxygen, like H₂O₂ are although generated in plant cells during the course of normal metabolic processes, but their production is notably enhanced when the plants are exposed to any kind of stress environment. The reactive oxygen species damage important cellular components, including cell membrane by peroxidation of lipid and de-esterification of fatty acids.

Plants have evolved a wide range of mechanisms to contend with this problem. The antioxidant defence system of a plant comprises of a variety of antioxidant molecules and enzymes which take care of free radicals produced in the cells. These enzymes are popularly termed as the ‘Scavenging Enzymes’ or ‘Antioxidative Enzymes’.

Conversion of oxygen molecules into its reactive form leads to induction of a sort of stress in plants, to which we call as ‘Oxidative Stress’. It is the equilibrium between oxidative stress and antioxidant enzymes, which determines the fate of a plant.

Plants possess scavenging enzyme system to protect them from destructive oxidative reactions. These enzymes are not restricted to the intercellular compartment but are also found in the apoplast to a limited extent. Some of the enzymes are as follows:-

A Flame Photometer has long been in use for analysis of elements; however, it is now being gradually replaced by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. The reason being, that the former can analyze only a few elements such as sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), barium (Ba) and lithium (Li), whereas the later can be used to analyze almost all the elements known, provided a specific Hollow Cathode Lamp (HC), for a specific element, is available. In addition, Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer is more precise and accurate in measurement as compared to Flame Photometer.

In this chapter, we shall deal with the operation techniques, working principles and a brief description of each and every component/constituent unit of a Flame Photometer as well as an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer.

Abstract

Designer foods are known by various names like medical foods, fortified foods, nutritional foods, nutraceutical foods, pharma foods etc. These foods are nutritious, maintain health and prevent diseases. Such foods must possess characteristics like modified composition; limit the presence of certain potentially harmful components and include certain desirable ingredients either naturally or by intentional addition. The term designer food emerged some years ago to describe foods tailored to specific concentration and proportion of nutrients that are important to health. These are designed and produced by using different approaches. The term ‘designer foods’ is subjected to change based on nutritional labelling regulations, new developments, consumer perceptions and expectations. Grain improvement through biotechnology emphasizes crop upgrading with a specific challenge to manipulate the endosperm composition in order to improve its intrinsic properties for diet and health. Breeding fruits with higher bioactive compounds for disease resistance and improved composition have stimulated interest in the nutraceutical and processing aspects of the fruits Nutritive and genetic interventions to alter milk composition for specific health and processing opportunities are gaining importance in dairy biotechnology. Designer eggs having modified fat provide choices with different nutritional benefits. The options suggested for designer meat and meat products are through production practices, post-harvest procedures and reformulation techniques. All these features of designer foods will be presented with suitable examples.

Abstract

Research has demonstrated that nutrition plays a crucial role in the prevention of chronic diseases as most of them can be related to diet. Functional food enters the concept of considering food not only necessary for living but also as a source of mental and physical well-being contributing to the prevention and reduction of risk factors for several diseases or enhancing certain physiological functions. One of the most clear objectives of the study of functional foods is to identify and validate biological markers in order to understand the interaction mechanisms between the food component and a body function. Epidemiologic and laboratory data from previous studies suggests that diets rich in fruits and vegetables are associated with a reduced risk of various types of cancers. The reduction in cancer risk may be attributed to the abundance of a family of specific compounds referred to as anthocyanins, which are found in various berries. Anthocyanins are water soluble pigments responsible for the blue, purple, and red color in many plant tissues Strawberry is one of “super fruits”, since they can form a significant component of the diet and are a potential resource of functional foods and nutraceuticals due to their antioxidant capacity and nutritional quality. Strawberries contain high levels of anthocyanins and they are also well liked by consumers. Popularity of strawberries in the consumer market makes them an ideal focus for chemoprevention studies. Strawberries are a rich source of phytochemicals (anthocyanins, catechins, the flavonols quercetin and kaempferol, and ellagic acid) and an important source of essential nutrients (ascorbic acid, potassium, folic acid, carotenoids, B-vitamins). Strawberries are consistently ranked among the top food sources of polyphenols and antioxidant capacity; the preventive and therapeutic health benefits of strawberries may be attributed to the synergistic effects of these bioactives and the nutrients contained in the fruit. These bioactive photochemical contribute the major health-promoting function. Strawberries have shown a remarkably high scavenging activity toward chemically generated radicals, thus making them effective in inhibiting oxidation of human low-density lipoproteins. Antioxidant activity of strawberries could contribute to the prevention of cancer, cardiovascular and other chronic diseases. Hence strawberry can be used as a vital and indispensible functional ingredient for the development offunctional foods and nutraceuticals.

Abstract

Micronutrients and bioactive compounds must be part of the population's diet in sufficient amounts to meet the body's needs. The concentrations of micronutrients and bioactive compounds in plant foods at harvest are known to vary with such factors as the variety or cultivar, stage of maturity, geographic or climatic effects, etc. Most subclasses of polyphenols e.g., phenolics acids and flavonoids, the effects of processing on the contents were found negligible in comparison to the differences between varieties of plants but carotenoids are among the food components most affected by environmental and processing conditions. Thermal processing has long been known to cause significant losses of vitamins, carotenoids and anthocyanins. The heat treatment viz. blanching, pasteurization, sterilization etc. result in losses of thermally labile nutrients and bioactive compounds, but the inactivation of oxidative and other degradative enzymes (e.g., lipoxygenase for carotenoids, polyphenol oxidase for flavonoids, ascorbic acid oxidase for vitamin C). Nutrients in dehydrated products are more likely to undergo degradation during storage because of the greater surface area exposed to oxygen and light. Blanched products generally resist decomposition better than unblanched foods during storage. Compared to losses during processing, subsequent storage often has a small but significant effect on vitamin and bioactive compound contents. Reaction rates are relatively slow at ambient or reduced temperature. The processing method chosen, and storage condition applied finalise the retention of these compounds which decreases with longer processing time, higher processing temperatures and storage of the food.

Abstract

Dietary fibers mostly include non-starch polysaccharides such as celluloses, hemicelluloses, gums and pectins, lignin, resistant dextrins and resistant starches. Based on their water solubility, dietary fibers may be divided into two forms insoluble dietary fiber which includes celluloses, some hemicelluloses and lignins which is fermented to a limited extent in the colon and soluble dietary fiber which includes f-glucans, pectins, gums, mucilages and hemicelluloses that are fermented in the colon. Resistant starch generally considered to be represented by the total amount ofstarch and the product of starch degradation that are not digested in the small intestine andpass into large intestine, and regarded as a component ofdietary fiber. Herbal nutraceutical is used as a powerful instrument in maintaining health and to act against nutritionally induced acute and chronic diseases, thereby promoting optimal health, and quality of life. Dietary spices in their minute quantities has an immense influence on the human health by their antioxidative, chemopreventive, antimutagenic, anti-inflammatory, immune modulatory effects on cells and a wide range of beneficial effects on human health. Nutraceutical is the hybrid of ‘nutrition’ and ‘pharmaceutical’. Nutraceuticals, in broad, are food or part of food playing a significant role in modifying and maintaining normal physiological function that maintains healthy human beings. Functional foods are including whole foods and fortified, enriched, or enhanced foods or dietary components that may reduce the risk of chronic disease and provide a health and physiological benefit beyond the traditional nutrients it contains.

Abstract

Nutraceuticals have potential to be used as food supplement, preventive medicine and the growing evidence points in the direction that certain foods fight and or prevent against diseases. The development of next generation nutraceutical “super foods” or products consist of value-addition in the traditional natural diets.The word Nutraceuticals combine ‘nutrition’ and ‘pharmaceuticals’ to mean that they can be used as preventive drugs or food supplements. The increase in knowledge about the immune response unveils the fact that besides immunological disorders and infections the outcome of many other diseases like diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, rheumatoid arthritis, etc. can be modified by modulating Immune response. Hence, the efficient immunomodulators can be employed to prevent or cure the diseases as immunotherapeutic agents. The most acceptable alternative therapeutic agents are the edible sources. Hence the researchers shifted towards formation of nutraceuticals or foods acting as medicine, a concept which was given by Hippocrates long back.

Abstract

The cereal grains are grown around the world, the most common is wheat, which accounts for one third of the total grain crop worldwide. In addition to providing energy, whole grains contain several key nutrients, including fibers, lipids, B vitamins and minerals as well as other beneficial components such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, lignans and phytosterols. Several of these components function as antioxidants. While multiple studies have been conducted to analyze antioxidants in different grains. In wheat and other grains, naturally occurring phytonutrients with antioxidant activity include phenolic acids, flavonoids, coumarins, polyphenols, phytates, terpenes, carotenoids, tocopherols and tocotrienols. Potential roles of the naturally occurring antioxidants in grains include free radical scavenger, reducing agent, complexation of prooxidant metals, quenchers of singlet-oxygen molecules and antioxidant defense enzyme system activators for biological systems. Wheat grain contains several components that have potential antioxidant activity and thus may have a protective role in human health. Traditional wheat-based breakfast foods include hot and cold ready-to-eat (RTE) cereals, as well as a variety of yeast-leavened and chemically leavened bakery products. Increasing baking time and temperature increases antioxidant activity in the bread crust and lowers antioxidant activity in the bread crumb portion. Wheat and wheat based products, particularly partial and 100% whole grain products have been shown to provide a variety of beneficial components including fiber, vitamins, minerals and other phytonutrients with antioxidant activity. Scientific evidence indicates that consumption of three or more ounce equivalents of whole grain foods per day may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes and certain cancers and help with weight management.

Abstract

Egg is a nutrient dense food, containing high quality proteins and a wide range of vitamins, minerals, trace elements, PUFA, MUFA etc. Whole egg slices were prepared by boiling in water technique for a predetermined time i.e. 15 min. The egg slices were prepared with spice extract at different levels of 2%, 5%, 7% and 10%, out of which 5% was found acceptable by sensory evaluation. The egg slices with 5% spice extract were then subjected to frying in different oils such as mustard oil, rice bran oil, sunflower oil and soya bean oil. Among all of the fried egg slices and control (without any spice extract and frying), on sensory evaluation, fried egg slices with mustard oil was most preferred. Texture analysis results shows that hardness was increased on frying and highest in fried egg slices with rice bran oil. Also the values for other TPA component viz. adhesiveness, cohesiveness, gumminess and chewiness were increased on frying as compared with control. Among the fried egg slices, highest values for adhesiveness, cohesiveness, gumminess was observed in egg slices with rice bran oil. However, chewiness of fried egg slices with sunflower oil was highest. It can be concluded from present study that the egg slices fried in mustard oil was organoleptically acceptable with good textural properties.

Abstract

Nanotechnology deals with understanding and control of matter at 1-100 nm dimensions. Nano-sized materials have been part of everyday life in the form of biological entities and processes. Many of the structural building elements in foods are colloids in nature and are built up as a result of self assembly of nano-sized molecules in particles or at interfaces. The most important food raw materials-proteins, starches and fats undergo structural changes at the nanometer and micrometer scales during normal food processing. Unique phenomena occurring at this length scale are being exploited for novel food applications. Functional foods are products, in food or drink form, which influence specific functions in the body and thereby offer benefits for health, well-being, or performance beyond their regular nutritional value. Nanotechnology promises to provide means of altering and manipulating food products to efficiently deliver nutrients like proteins and antioxidants for precisely targeted nutritional and health benefits. Nanotechnology applications for functional food ingredients and additives offer range of benefits to the consumer in terms of innovative, tasteful and healthy food products. Nanoencapsulation systems aid smart protection and delivery of bioactives so as to ensure their stability, taste, colour, safety and bioavailability. The advent of nanotechnology has opened up innovations in food packaging with improved stability and barrier properties. However, need exists to develop regulatory systems for managing any risks associated with functional nanofoods and the use of nanotechnologies in the food industry.