eChapters

Abstract

The concern of consumers for convenience and healthy foods involves many parameters like functional and nutraceutical properties, ease to prepare, good quality, economics as well as good nutritional profile of the food. This trend of convenience has been increasing in today's world because of the societal changes like the aging of population, the increasing entry of women into the labor force, the change to a multi-cultured society and the increasing polarization between poor and rich. Value addition to the traditional sources is a medium to bring variety products into the market. Cereal starches possess a wide application in the food industry as an additive but the native starch is not widely used in food industry due to its poor functional properties. Pregelatinized starches and flours have become important in processed foods because the functional properties of the starches and flours are improved over the native starches and cereal flours. Modification is a process which alters the structure of the starch in the wheat endosperm by affecting the hydrogen bonds in a controllable manner. Modification of starch and flours is generally done by several methods such as chemical degradation, physical alteration or enzymatic transformation. The primary objective of modification is to reduce the hot viscosity of the starch paste so that higher concentrations of starch can be dispersed without excessive thickening. The pregelatinized flours offer a tremendous number of functional benefits to variety of foods such as bakeries, snacks, beverages as well as nutritional foods. The various functional benefits of pre-gelatinized starch/flour as an additive are classified as fat replacer, texture improver, stabilizer, emulsifier, thickening agent and for freeze-thaw stability. Keywords: Pregelatinization, modification, functionality, cereal flour.

Abstract

The aim of this work was to reduce the natural fermentation period of ‘idli’ from the conventional 14 hr to10 hr by adding underutilized okara for the preparation of ‘idli’. Black gram was partially substituted with soy residue okara in the ratio of (1:1). After 14 hr of natural fermentation, the pH and total acidity of control ‘idli’ batter was 4.55 and 0.68% and that of okara fortified ‘idli’ batter was 4.57 and 0.56%, respectively. The amount of CO₂ released by the control and okara fortified batter was 12.5% and 22.5% respectively. The viable count of yeast and mold, lactics and mesophilic bacteria in control and okara batter increased with time reaching 8.4 and 9.6, 8.2 and 7.5, and 8.6 and 9.2 log10 cfu/g, respectively at the end of 10 hr of natural fermentation. Okara fortified ‘idli’ was soft and spongy compared to control ‘idli’.

Abstract

Rice is the most produced and consumed source of stable food in J andK, and is excellent in genetic diversity. Rice production is the principal activity and a major source of income for the State. Traditional rice varieties have an enhancing potential in wide range of nutraceutical and functional foods. Besides possessing medicinal and nutritional properties, the by-products generated from these rice varieties in various post harvest operations are equally valuable. Traditional healers and local farmers have been using these traditional varieties in ayurveda and in curing of various kinds of ailments, such as cooling the body in ayurvedic treatments, improving vocal clarity, curing of boils, swellings and skin blemishes. Extracts of brown rice are also used as energy drink in individuals, patients and in treatment of chronic gastric problems, jaundice, dysenteric complaints and to increase lactation and nutrition to Childs. Sticky glutinous rice has been reported in treatment of stomach upsets, nausea, heart-burn and indigestion. Brown rice extracts have been reported in treatments of breast and stomach cancer and warts.

Abstract

Starch is a naturally occurring biodegradable polymer and readily available from agriculture. It is widely used in food and non-food applications and isolated from crops such as maize, potatoes, tapioca, rice and wheat. However, in recent years substantial progress has been made on the molecular structure of cereal and tuber starches and their impact on functionality, the following is a subjective summary that presents status of knowledge on isolation of starch from non-conventional source like Acorus calamus (sweet flag). The focus is on potential application of the source as food and non-food derivatives. Extensive work has been carried out on agronomic and phenotypic properties for most tropical crops, but relatively little study has been carried out on the properties which are of direct technical and economic interest to competitive food and non-food industry. Sweet flag (Acorus calamus L.) is an emergent macrophyte, originating in Asia, commonly found in European wetlands. Rhizome is the most important storage organ in Acorus. It contains considerable amounts of carbohydrates and nitrogen-rich compound. This species is growing to 6 feet, with long lanceolate leaves %-inch wide with pronounced midrib, aromatic, with stout rhizomes. The major proportion of total non-structural carbohydrates in rhizomes is starch (91-93% and 51-64% in rhizomes and roots, respectively). However, amount of starch varies among the organs as well. Rhizomes contain the highest amount of starch followed by branched roots and finally by unbranched roots. Rhizomes comprises single to compound grains, with clusters present in high frequencies. Non-conventional food resources and their value addition have attracted attention in the recent years for their potential use as functional ingredients in food formulations, besides food they have also been used for non-food applications. So there is tremendous potential for the profitable commercial use of these tropical starches and exploring them for further use.

Abstract

Due to rapidly increasing knowledge on nutrition and medicine, concepts about food and health has dramatically changed and resulted in consumption of nutraceuticals and natural plant foods.Use of nutritional therapy and phytotherapy have become progressively popular to improve health, and to prevent and treat diseases. Plants have long history of their uses as ingredients of human nutrition and folk medicine,because of availability of huge array of high-value components and multiple-activity bio-actives. “Licorice” means “sweet root” in Greek is a plant of ancient origin, indigenous to Southern Europe and Asia Minor. Most of the supply comes from former USSR, Spain, Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Afghanistan, with total production between 40,000 and 50,000 tonnes per annum. The chemical constituents of the roots include several bioactive compounds, such as glycyrrhizin (~16%), different sugars (up to 18%) ,flavonoids, saponoids,sterols, starches, amino acids, gums and essential oils. A large number of clinical and experimental studies reported its useful biological properties such as antioxidant, immunomodulatory, cardioprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-viral and anticancer effects. It is useful in anaemia, gout, asthama,ulcers, sore throat, tonsillitis, diabetes, tuberculosis, flatulence, diarrhea, sexual debility, epilepsy, hyperdypsia, fever, coughs, skin diseases, eye diseases, swellings,constipation, rheumatism, acidity, leucorrhoea, bleeding, jaundice, hiccough, hoarseness, bronchitis.Recently, it is reported to have neurological properties such as antidepressant, anxiolytic, and anticonvulsant effects. The most abundant minerals present are calcium, sodium, phosphorus, potassium and iron. Licorice extracts and its principle component, glycyrrhizin, have extensive use in foods,as a natural sweetener and flavoring agent in beverage, confectionery, tobacco and pharmaceutical industry. It is in great demand globally as medicinal and nutritional supplement due to it's wide range of properties, which also indicates that in future the plant could serve as a “lead” for the development of novel agents having good efficacy in various disorders.

Abstract

Kulfi is a mixture of fat; sugar and milk solid not fat together with added flavour. So diabetics people on restricted diets cannot consume kulfi having normal ingredients. Now-a-days, consumers demand for low fat/calorie products has significantly raised in an attempt to limit health problems, to lose or stabilize their weight and to work within the frame of a healthier diet. The role of fat replacers and sugar substitutes in the successful manufacture of these products is crucial. Development of sugar free kulfi would certainly ensure diabetic/obese people to enjoy ice cream/ kulfi. The current study is to standardize the kulfi recipe with fat and calorie replacer. Basic formula mix consist of Whole milk 60 percent, SMP 12 percent, Sugar 13 percent, Cream 15 percent and Stabilizer 0.5 percent where the whole milk was replaced by skim milk, cream and sugar was replaced by maltodextrin as a bulking agent and aspartame respectively alongwith sodium alginate as a stabilizer. The replacers were incorporated at four different levels of 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 percent to the basic formula mix. Freezing of above kulfi mix was done by traditional method and softy freezer method. Sensory evaluation was carried out by using 9-point hedonic scale through semi-trained judges and results were statistically analyzed. On the basis of sensory scores it was revealed that sugar could be replaced 100% by artificial sweetener, bulking agent (Maltodextrin). It was found from the sensory scores that the milk fat in kulfi can be replaced upto 75 percent by sodium caseinate thereafter increase in caseinate gives prominent flavour of casein and kulfi body becomes thick and hard. It was concluded from the results that 100 percent sugar replacement was found feasible in preparation of low fat and low calorie kulfi. Results of the low fat and low calorie kulfi mix indicated that there was 32.29 percent reduction in the calorific value of experimental kulfi as compared to the control sample (traditional). It was concluded from the results that the kulfi with 75 percent less fat and 100 percent sugar free can be prepared with low cost in comparison with control.

Abstract

Vitamin D or “sunshine vitamin” is an essential fat soluble vitamin required for healthy bones. It is responsible for enhancing intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphate. Its deficiency leads to osteoporosis and osteomalacia in adults and rickets and other bone deformities in children. Vitamin D deficiency is being reported to be quite common these days due to modernization accompanied with changes in lifestyle and environmental pollution which limit sun exposure for several individuals. Inadequate sun exposure results in reduced vitamin D synthesis and ultimately poor vitamin D status necessitating compensation through dietary intake. Dietary vitamin D intake is very low in India because of low consumption of vitamin D rich foods, absence of fortification and little use of supplements. It is becoming a major public health problem, needing immediate attention. Fortification of milk and milk products is the safe and effective approach to deal with widespread vitamin D deficiency as milk is consumed and liked equally by all age groups. This paper highlights the importance, sources, recommended allowances and other relevant issues related to vitamin D fortification and its health effects.

ABSTRACT

Multispectral imagery has been used as the data source for natural resource mapping and land observational remote sensing from airborne and satellite systems since the early 1960s. Over the past two decades, advances in sensor technology have made it possible for the collection of several hundred spectral bands. This is commonly refe rred to as hyperspectral imagery. Thus it is possible to construct a complete reflectance spectrum of every pixel in the scene. This review highlights the hyperspectral remote sensing system development, hyper spectral data processing and difference between multispectral and hyperspectral data; spatial and spectral resolutions and focuses on the application of hyperspectral imagery in natural resource studies and, in particular the classification and mapping of land resources.

ABSTRACT

Mineral composition and their distribution on planetary surfaces provides important clues to the evolutionary processes that the planetary bodies have undergone since their formation. For distant and inaccessible planets, remote sensing, either from Earth-based telescopes or from an orbiter around the planetary body, using reflectance spectroscopy over a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum (UV-Visible-IR), can provide surface distribution of minerals. With advances in technology, a high-resolution hyperspectral imager onboard an orbiter has developed into a powerful tool for compositional mapping of planetary surfaces. Interpretation of the signals from these distant and relatively unknown destinations is a challenging task due to scarcity of available ground truth. Here, we describe the technique with its applicability to airless bodies, such as Moon, in the context of the Indian Moon mission, Chandrayaan-1, and, the intricacies involved in the data analyses.

Keywords : Reflectance spectroscopy, hyperspectral data, remote sensing, planets, moon

1. INTRODUCTION

The primary goal of planetary exploration is to understand the mechanism by which planetary objects (planets, dwarf planets, satellites and small solar system bodies) have evolved with time. The information gathered from the study of individual bodies is integrated to comprehend the development of our solar system. The present understanding envisages our solar system to have formed from the solar nebula, produced as a consequence of the collapse of a molecular cloud. While the central mass gravitated and formed the sun, the gas and dust surrounding it condensed to form grains and formed the proto-planetary disk. These grains, through a series of processes, finally aggregated to form of the various planetary bodies. Existing Astronomical, chemical and mineralogical evidences from studies of lunar samples, meteorites and, remote sensing observations suggest that the planetary bodies are heterogeneous and possess extreme compositional and morphological diversity. The internal energy of a planetary body, a function of its size, is responsible for the differences in the degree of differentiation a body has undergone leading to the variations in their surface composition. Large planets like the Earth and Venus are still evolving whereas the small asteroids have barely evolved after their formation and are considered primitive. The wide variety of planetary bodies in our solar system is therefore reminiscent of the various stages of evolution that our solar system went through. The degree of melting and cycling through episodes of differentiation determine the mineral inventory on a planetary body. Therefore, distribution and composition of various minerals can be used to understand various stages of chemical evolution of a planetary body. Mineral mapping of planetary surfaces is thus useful in understanding the petrogenetic history.

ABSTRACT

Greenseeker is a handheld computer mounted sensor for observing normalized difference vegetation Index [NDVI= (NIR “R)/(NIR+R)], which may be used to estimate site specific amount of fertilizer nitrogen depending up on the crop condition. The sensor can be used for yield estimation and developing remote sensing based growth models. It is an active sensor with a built in light source for illuminating the target and records reflected light from vegetation at wavelength of 670 nm (red region) and 780 nm (near infrared region) of electromagnetic spectrum. The swath covered by the Sensor is 0.75 m when sensor is placed about 1.0 m above crop canopy.

The sensor was used to record NDVI in wheat- sugarcane intercropping system wherein wheat was grown on raised beds of 1.04 m width with six rows of wheat and sugarcane in furrows at row spacing of 1.38 m. The wheat variety PBW 343 was sown with nitrogen levels @ 0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180 and 210 kg N ha^-1 (all basal) and sugarcane variety CoSe 92423 was planted in furrows on 7^th November, 2006 in a medium textured loam soil.

The NDVI was recorded in wheat at 17, 41, 59, 73, 88, 113 and 129 DAS using Greenseeker and Spectroradiometer (UNISPEC ^TM of PP system, USA) simulating normal satellite bands i.e.

NIR: 770-860 nm, Red: 620-680 nm, Green: 520-580 nm. The maximum NDVI (recorded at 88 DAS) was used to develop INSEY “ yield relationship in wheat. The NDVI recorded by Greenseeker was integrated with NDVI recorded by Spectroradiometer.

The Greenseeker was also used to monitor crop growth in sugarcane. The NDVI was correlated with shoot population, plant height, LAI and total biomass during formative and crop elongation phase of sugarcane till end of November 2007. Highly significant (at 1%) correlation was observed between GS- NDVI and shoot population till mid August and LAI in sugarcane for entire crop cycle. An exponential model (R² = 0.9017) was developed to estimate LAI of sugarcane from NDVI. The NDVI was significantly (at 5 %) was correlated with plant height till mid August. However, the correlation between total crop biomass in sugarcane and NDVI remained non-significant.

ABSTRACT

The improvement of spatial resolution of satellite remote sensing (RS) imagery, it is possible to update spatial data infrastructure efficiently by satellite RS images. But the RS data volume is vast, so high processing capacity is required. In order to extract the anticipated images from vast image database, effective retrieval technique is vital. The rapid development of Earth Observation System (EOS), the spatial resolution, temporal resolution and spectral resolution of Remote Sensing (RS) image have been improved greatly. Based on contentbased image retrieval, content-based RS image retrieval is put forward and some topics including retrieval pattern, useful image content, feature extraction and similarity measure are researched. After related images are retrieved from vast image database, it is necessary to discover those change areas, so change detection from multitemporal RS images are discussed further. RS image data mining and knowledge discovery is the synergy of Spatial Data Mining (SDM) and Image Data Mining (IDM). It is pointed out that content based RS image retrieval will be potential advantageous in the future and all the techniques discussed in this paper including retrieval modes, content-useful in RS image retrieval. Content-based image retrieval (CBIR) is one of the hot issues in image retrieval, and it can be used to RS image retrieval. That lead to a new area: content-based RS imagery retrieval.

Keywords : Remote Sensing, content based RS image Retrieval, Earth Observation System, Spatial Data Mining, Image Data Mining.

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this paper is to utilize thermal infra red remote sensing data to find the location of heat processing units which contribute to high temperatures. These industries occur as anomalous pixels in urban area on the temperature map derived from the thermal remote sensing data. The night scenes of ASTER thermal infra red data were used for this study. It is concluded that analysis of temporal thermal remote sensing data can be used as a tool in environmental impact assessment and management. The temperature maps can be helpful in decision making process of siting / relocation of heat producing industries in and around cities.

1. INTRODUCTION

For sustainable industrial development, management and regular monitoring of the industries is needed. Knowledge of industrial impacts on the environment is an essential for environmental impact assessment and management. Thermal remotes sensing techniques can be applied for this.

ABSTRACT

Presence of mangrove ecosystems on coastline, save lives and property during natural hazards such as cyclones, storm surges and erosion. This study is undertaken to assess the distribution of mangroves in Tamil Nadu. Geographical Information System, Remote Sensing and GPS (Global Positioning System) were used for mapping the mangrove forests. Mangrove wetland map and species zonation maps have been done using didital analysis of Remote Sensing data and ground truth information. The total area of mangroves found in Tamil Nadu and in Puducherry is around 4100ha.

1. INTRODUCTION

Mangroves are typical, tropical specialized trees growing in the saline and brackish water system. Mangrove plants live in muddy and wet saline soils. They are trees associated with shrubs, growing both on the sheltered coast and inland, lining the bank of estuaries and rivers. They are an ecological group of evergreen plant species, belonging to different families, but possessing marked similarities in their physiological characteristics and structural adaptations. Mangrove areas are associated with high leaf production and leaf fall and rapid decomposition of the litter.

Mangrove forests perform multiple ecological functions: They produce woody trees, provide habitat and detritus food for fish and shellfish and act as spawning ground for a variety of fishes, prawns and shellfishes. They harbour a variety of valuable fauna, including migratory birds. They also protect the coasts from storms and tidal waves and help in the formation of land by trapping sediments brought by the coastal community.There are many threats to mangroves. Deforestation is one of the major threats.

ABSTRACT

Coastal resources represents highly productive ecosystems and are under pressure on account of increased anthropogenic activity on the coast. There is an urgent need to protect coastal resources aiming at sustainable development. Management of coastal resources requires spatial information on land and water resources, processes, water quality in a repetitive basis. Availability of high resolution and very high resolution data made the spatial tools indispensable in planning and management of resources such as mangroves and coral reefs. Monitoring mangrove degradation and aquaculture development, land use pattern, site selection for developmental activities adhering to coastal regulation zone notification requires highly accurate spatial information that can be extracted from IRS, IKONOS data. Extensive applications of remote sensing were hindered by cost, lack of familiarity and expertise in the developing countries. A national frame work must be established involving all available spatial datasets to build up the technical capabilities and ensure sustained support.

ABSTRACT

This work presents the results of multispectral analysis of TM (Thematic Mapper) sensor images on board the satellite LANDSAT 5 for discrimination of selected features of a Nainarmalai region of part of Namakkal District, Tamil Nadu using hyperspectral tools. The spectral classification was carried out using hyperspectral tools namely, a) spectral reduction by the Minimum Noise Fraction (MNF) transformation, b) spatial reduction by the Pixel Purity Index (PPI) and c) manual identification of the end members using the N-dimensional visualizer. The results of study shows that the kinds of features such as magnetite quartzite, sand, harvested land and vegetation area are discriminated well (as given in the figure) and show a strong correlation with landscape.

Keywords: Landsat TM Multispectral Images, MNF transformation, PPI, endmembers, Reflectance spectrum, ENVI software.

1. INTRODUCTION

With a multispectral analysis of an images collected by radiometers and detectors embarked on a satellite, one can make: “spectroscopy by satellite imagery”. Imaging spectrometers or “multispectral sensors” are remote sensing instruments that combine the spatial presentation of an imaging sensor with the analytical capabilities of a spectrometer. With a radiometer such as AVIRIS ”Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer” where the number of spectral bands exceeds the 200, and with a spectral resolution of the order of 10 nm or narrow, it can produce a complete spectrum for each pixel of the image. The case of this radiometer enters on the “Hyperspectral” field. In the case of our study, we are using the radiometer TM (Thematic Mapper), which is on board for the satellite Landsat 5, and which only has 7 multispectral bands, with a spectral resolution of the order of 100 nm. Like finale result, one using the spectroscopy by satellite imagery, we can identify the spectra of various materials which are on various terrestrial surfaces.

ABSTRACT

Soil is the medium in which the plant growth and development occurs. Soil type might change with genesis of the parent material and with prevailing weather conditions. Dominant soils of Tamil Nadu are Black soil, Red soil, Laterite soil and Hill soils. Each soil type has an inherent potential to retain and release nutrients to plants. The availability of nutrients varies from place to place and hence spatial distribution of nutrients, quantity of nutrients along with plant available water determines phenological development of crops. Nutrients are broadly classified as Macro and Micro nutrients that are required for crops in large and small quantities respectively. Availability of both macro and micro nutrients and its spatial distribution has not been attempted so far at a regional level. Such regional level approach of nutrients would suffice the researchers and policy planners to employ these data as inputs to Crop Simulation Models (CSM) in forecasting productivity of crops.

Thiruvannamalai district in Tamil Nadu is divided into 6 taluks, 18 blocks covering an area of 6,31,205 haof land. The district lies between 12⁰ 00’ to 12⁰ 55’ N latitude and 78⁰ 37'to 79⁰ 45’ E longitude. Red loamy soil is predominantly prevalent followed by black loamy soils. Generally paddy, groundnut, sugarcane, millets and pulses are cultivated during fasli season. This district was chosen as our study area.

A study has been attempted to map micro nutrients of Thiruvannamalai district. Geo-referenced surface soil samples from eighteen blocks of Thiruvananmalai district covering maximum soil units of soil map were collected randomly as per procedure adopted by soil survey manual. Global Positioning System (GPS) were used to collect corresponding geographic coordinates from each soil sampling point covering the entire Thiruvananmalai district by using Rikaline Bluetooth GPS 6031- X7 model. Approximately one thousand five hundred surface soil samples were collected, air dried, powered and sieved as per standard conditions. Soil samples were analyzed for its physical, chemical and fertility properties. Fertility maps for Micro nutrients such as Zinc, Iron, Manganese, Copper and Boron were plotted in ARCGIS Desktop. Micronutrients maps form a part of base map in analyzing and preparing an aggregated fertility map of Thiruvannamalai district.

ABSTRACT

The present study reports shoreline changes at Gopalpur along east coast of India for 30 years during 1973-2003. In order to understand the trend of sediment transport, shoreline changes at the vicinity areas viz. Rushikulya and Bahuda estuaries are also discussed. Geomorphological investigation is also carried out to understand the processes acting on this system. One Landsat image (1973) and two IRS 1C/1D images (1993 and 2003) were used for the study. The data were subjected to digital analysis using ERDAS Imagine and management of information layers using ARC/INFO GIS software. The results of the study show that the changes occurred differently in three distinct spatial features namely, i) sand spit ii) beach and, (iii) channel zone. Changes documented in these imageries reveal that the lengths of NE spit and SW spit are increased and decreased respectively in thirty years. Areas of NE and SW spits are also showing the similar pattern. Beach is almost stabilised and a slight decrease of 0.28 km in length is observed. However, area has been increased in the southern beach. Towards north, the beach area is also increased over a period of thirty years. The change of width of the beach is not found to be significant. The mouth near channel zone is reduced to 70 meter from 135 meter during the period of study.

ABSTRACT

The study was aimed to identify and delineate the groundwater potable zone in and around Madurai region. The study area is composed of Charnockites and Khondalites of Archaean age. The information of lithology, geomorphology and land use/land cover was generated using the Resourcesat (IRS P6 LISS IV data) and Survey of India (SoI) toposheets of scale 1:50,000 and integrated them with GIS to identify the groundwater potable zones of the study area. On the basis of hydrogeomorphology, groundwater potential zones was identified and delineated. From the overlay analyses landuse and EC, it is inferred that, poor category groundwater is found in the scrub forest, current fallow, canal and scrub with land areas.

ABSTRACT

Groundwater geochemistry is largely a function of mineral composition of aquifer through which water flows thus, differences in aquifer composition are reflected as differences in groundwater chemistry. To understand water quality and flow pattern multivariate statistical analysis are used due to its relative importance in combining chemical variables and organize voluminous data and group into variables of similar characters. R-mode factor analysis is used in the field of hydrogeochemistry to interpret complex hydrogeological process. A total of 216 samples representing complete lithology like peninsular gneiss, Charnockite and calc gneiss for four different seasons was collected and analyzed for major ions like Ca, Mg, Na, K, HCO₃, Cl, SO₄, NO₃, PO₄, F and H₄SiO₄. Correlation analysis reveals Mg, Cl and Na are spinal and others seasonal. Factor analysis indicates ascendancy of anthropogenic basis followed by lithological weight. Factor score superimpose indicate governing hydrogeochemical regimes spread in western and eastern part. In southern part the same has superior influence than northern part.

Every garden has got specific purpose and utility. Specialized gardens are planned gardens according to various locations and fulfilling specific needs. Therefore, these should be designed envisaging primary requirements depending upon the types. Features of these are specific including plants and planting pattern. So, these gardens need to be dealt separately so that planning and execution is done in more systematic way focusing utilitarian and ornamental purposes.

Home Garden

Basically it is a piece of land attached to the home, beautified with different features, ornamental and flowering plants. The main purpose of this type of garden is beautification round the year and utility for relaxation of the family. Accordingly, design and features should be selected to fulfill the same.

This is a special kind of garden made with help of vertical structures and plants are grown / trained in special manner. Besides, roofs can also be converted into green roof. Restricted availability of ground space, modification of residential places and quest for growing plants have given birth of vertical gardening. Practically, this type of gardening has widened the scope of growing plants. Small spaces can also be converted into a lively place with proper design. Even bare walls can be converted into an attractive green wall with proper structure and designing with plants.

Advantages

Vertical gardening is ideal for urban areas especially for people living in the apartments. Following advantages have been recorded.

Wide hybridization (interspecific/intergeneric) is basically attemped to introduce new genetic variability from wild or distantly related species into cultivated ones or to synthesize new plant type/s like Triticale and Raphanobrassica. Majority of the commercial crop plants are usually deficient for one or the other desirable traits which are usually available in their wild relatives. However, crossability between commercial varieties and their wild relatives is very limited which is naturally imposed by certain genetically controlled reproductive barriers. These reproductive barrier/s usually operate either at pre or post fertilization stage/s in plant species (Stebbins1958). Since a species is constituted of individuals who share a common gene pool, reproduce among themselves only / exchange genes and share a common habitat. Hence at natural level gene flow remains strictly confined only among members of a particular species otherwise among the members of unrelated species a genetic barrier exists to create reproductive isolation. Therefore, wide crossing basically requires the overcoming of such barriers whch are imposed by temporal and spatial isolation of parents. The reproductive isolation consists of premating and post mating isolation mechanisms like habitat isolation or geographical isolation, sexual isolation and mechanical barrier depending upon incompatibility or mismatching of ganitalia (animals). Sexual isolation in animal kingdom is usually enforced by type of sexual displays and mating calls which are attractivce only to particular members of a species , however other potential intermating species also do exist in the same habitat or locality at that particular period of time.

Soil is a mass of large variability and thus its sampling is the most challenging problem for any soil analyst. Practically, soil sampling is a two step process which includes (i) collection of soil from homogeneous unit and (ii) processing which in turn includes drying, grinding, sieving, mixing, partitioning and storing.

3.1 Determination of Bulk Density of Soil

3.1.1 Determination of Bulk Density of an undisturbed Soil

Bulk density of soil is expressed as the ratio of the mass (weight) of soil particle to their total volume including the pore space between the soil particles. Alternately, it is the weight of unit volume of dry soil. It is usually expressed in the unit of gram per cubic centimeter (g/cc) or mega gram per cubic meter (Mg/m³). In fine textured soil bulk density varies from 1.00 to 1.60 g/cc, whereas in coarse textured soil from 1.20 to 1.80 g/cc.

In agroforestry systems the various components like tree, crop and pasture exist in different proportions and orientations. It is difficult to find out which agroforestry system is the best suited for a given land situation. Similarly, it is to be decided which technologies are required for refinement and improvement of the existing agroforestry practices. But without sufficient knowledge of the existing system in a particular land situation, it is very difficult to set the research priorities for modification and development of this system.

Diagnosis and Design (D & D) is a systematic and objective methodology developed by International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) to initiate, monitor and evaluate agroforestry programmes. D & D is based on the philosophy that knowledge of the existing situation (diagnosis) is essential to plan and evaluate (design) meaningful and effective programmes in agroforestry research for development. The methodology plays a strategic role in all the phases of the agroforestry research process. D & D in agroforestry is unique and it has been specially developed for the following purposes.

Algae are a large and diverse group of eukaryotic organisms that contain chlorophyll and carry out the oxygenic photosynthesis.

Study of algae is referred as phycology or algalogy

They vary from cyanobacteria or blue green algae by their eukaryotic nature.

India ranks third after China and Canada in the world in production of edible oilseed crops. Average yield of rapeseed-mustard in the world is 2043 kg/ha. Average yield of European Union, Canada and China is higher than India. Higher yield in these countries is due to cultivation of long duration varieties suitable for their local climatic conditions. Duration of favorable climatic condition to grow rapeseed-mustard is shorter in India as compared to EU, Canada and China, which enforces cultivation of short duration varieties (130-145days). Rapeseed-mustard contribute one third in the production of edible oils in India. These crops ranks second in area and production after soybean. Total area and production under these crops is 5.80mh and 6.28mt respectively. It is necessary to mention that total water requirement of these crop is 80-240mm, which is very low as compared to other crops. These crops pay higher return by utilizing low inputs, thus, are highly remunerative for the farmers.

Rapeseed-mustard group of crops are mainly cultivated in irrigated areas where at least one irrigation facility is available and only 24.0% of area is under rain-fed situation. Five states of India namely, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal contribute 82.00% and 85.67% in total area and production, respectively, under these crops. In Madhya Pradesh 53.2% of total area is irrigated with average yield of 1006 kg/ha, however, 76.6% of total area of country is irrigated even then average yield is only 1083 kg/ha. The lower average seed yield can be attributed to (i) cultivation of very short duration and low yielding B. rapa genotypes in Eastern and North-Eastern states; (ii) susceptibility of varieties to different pests; and (iii) high temperature stress at seedling and reproductive stage. Out of total area under these crops, Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) is grown over more than 80% area. Cultivation of Indian mustard has also been taken up in non-traditional areas of southern states of India viz., Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh, recently. This has become possible due to its higher average yield, tolerance against different biotic and abiotic stresses, availability of varieties with 100-152 days maturity, and non-shattering behaviour.

India has emerged as the second largest producer of vegetables 176.17 mt after China 573.93 mt in the world and is gradually striding towards achieving food and nutritional security at national level. The average productivity of vegetable crops is 17.6 t/ha (NHB, 2015) which is comparatively lower than the productivity of China (23.4t/ha), Spain (39.3t/ha) and USA (32.5t/ha). The lower productivity could be attributed to limited use of quality seeds, inefficient production management, impact of biotic stress and climatic factors during crop production. Among the limiting factors limited availability of quality seed is one of the important factors. Since, the performance of other inputs is also depend on the quality of seed. At present the seed replacement rate among vegetable crops is around 25%, whereas highest in cabbage (>90%) followed by tomato, capsicum, bitter gourd, muskmelon, bottle gourd etc.The use of hybrid seed is in increasing due to higher productivity, tolerance to biotic and a biotic stresses and better market value than the open pollinated varieties but the higher price of the hybrid and their availability is still a constraint in adopting the use of hybrid seeds among small and marginal farmers.

Crop diversification has been well recognized as an effective strategy for achieving the objectives of food and nutritional security, income growth, poverty alleviation, employment generation, judicious use of land, water and other natural resources, sustaining agricultural development and environmental improvement. Vegetable crops being rich sources of various health building substances, especially vitamins and minerals, offer unique advantage for food and nutritional security, tackle malnutrition and dietary deficiency diseases. Besides, their high yield potential per unit area and time, diverse varietal wealth, labour intensiveness, high market price and prospects of processing, value addition and export, they play an important role in employment generation, and livelihood improvement. Since India is endowed with diverse agro-climatic conditions, almost all kinds of vegetable crops are grown in one or other corner of our country. More than 200 different vegetables are grown in India, of which, about 70 types are cultivated commercially. Vegetable production scenario in India has made a remarkable progress since independence from a meagre production of 17.5 million tonnes to 146 million tones, with a productivity of 17.3 t/ha. India is the second largest vegetable producer in the world after China. However, it needs to be doubled by 2020 in order to meet the nutritional requirement of burgeoning population in the country. With increasing purchasing power of people, the demand for vegetables has increased enormously, as a result the prices of vegetables have increased and it has been the dominant factor for high inflationary pressure in Indian economy during recent years. Inclusion of different vegetable crops with shorter maturity period in the prevailing cropping system will enhance the total system productivity, which may go a long way in improving the economic as well as physical health of small and marginal farmers.

Insect pests, diseases and weeds are major biotic bottlenecks in the production of crops, inflicting on an average about 30% yield loss. Monetary value of these losses has been estimated to be exceeding Rs 1,00, 000 crores. There is thus ample scope to enhance our food production by curtailing losses due to pests to certain extent. Only option to boost our production remains in growing improved crop cultivars with better pest management options. Mainly synthetic pesticides have been used to combat pest menace in agriculture and public health. Pesticides have, of course, played a commendable role in increasing our food production and protecting us against disease vectors. However sole reliance on pesticides has created several problems such as development of resistant pests, pest outbreaks, mortality of useful organisms, adverse effect on human health and environmental degradation. Adverse effects of pesticides prompted scientists to look for safer and environment friendly methods of pest control and consequently concept of pest management came in to being.

Pest management is known as an ecological approach to tackle pest problems, because here emphasis is on containing pests in such a way that other biotic components of the system such as natural enemies, human beings and wildlife etc are not harmed and environment is preserved in general. Pest management works on the premise that all pest population levels are not injurious to crops and crops can always compensate for certain injury due to pests. Moreover, some pest population is always required for the survival of natural enemies of the pests. This has given rise to the concept of economic injury level (EIL), which helps to avoid unwarranted application of pesticides. The EIL based pesticide application ensures favourable cost-benefit ratio to farmers. Pest management also underlines that pest control tactics should be socially acceptable and within the reach of farmers. It is a holistic approach to pest problems in which we aim to protect our commodities against all the pests and ensure production of healthy crops.

Agriculture shapes the foundation of Indian economy and despite the fact that there has been vast industrialization in most 60 years; horticulture still occupies a place of significance. In India, approximately 20-25% of the horticulture produce goes waste due to improper post harvest operations which reduces the growers share in the present marketing arrangements. The grower is getting hardly 25-35 paisa of a consumer rupee. The Value addition activities where the fruits and vegetables are processed, that fetches higher remunerative prices of the produce. Such opportunities are presently not available in rural areas but could be created through selective mechanization of agriculture and appropriate post harvest management and value addition to the harvested biomass in the production catchments.The agricultural produce involves operations like cleaning, grading, drying, storage, milling, packaging, transport, marketing and utilization. At the end of each operation, value is added to the product. The lowest and the highest monetary values of a food commodity are, respectively, when it is in raw and fresh form and when it is in processed and ready to consume/eat form. Post harvest and food processing technology are commodity and location specific. It prevent avoidable post harvest losses and adding value to the fresh agro-produces. It also creates opportunities for employment and income generation. Integration of production agriculture with on-farm primary processing is needed to have higher and sustainable production, productivity and better quality end products for domestic and export markets. It would help in reducing rural- urban disparity and ensuring household food and nutritional security for all at an affordable cost. The technology is available and a wide range of tools, machines and equipment are used in post-production of agriculture. The globalization of trade may compel many agro processing industries to rely on an imported technology at a high cost and the advantage of such technology may be availed by a few who have an exclusive business interest. Majority of agriculture-based enterprises will continue to depend upon indigenous technology and, therefore, R&D through public support has to be strengthened to become globally competitive and serve small-scale food processing sector of the country.

Most of the horticultural produce is of perishable nature and must be protected from postharvest losses, which start from the field itself. Therefore, adoption of proper packing house operation plays a very crucial role in minimizing postharvest losses

Although, we have reached new heights in the production of fruits comparable to China, Brazil and USA and in vegetables to China, yet we are far behind in postharvest management of these perishables, primarily due to lack of appropriate infrastructure. Test studies conducted in Australia have indicated that the distribution cost of perishable horticultural produce is assumed 5 to 9 times, the production cost. Further, packaging accounted for 25-50% of the wholesale price of fruits and vegetables. In India, huge losses of horticultural produce (25-30%) after harvest are encountered mainly due to non-existence of packing house concept.

Packing house operations essentially begins with the use of proper field containers, field transport, temperature protection of harvest produce, sorting, sizing, grading, packing, which are essential preparatory steps to storage, shipment and subsequent marketing. Depending on the kind of produce, additional activities viz. degreening, curing, washing, ripening, waxing, precooling etc. are done. The sequence of activities varies with the crops. A considerable quantity of postharvest losses of horticultural produce could be minimized by adoption of various packing house operations described below:

Livestock wealth is very precious for a developing country like India. In India, animal husbandry is no longer a subsidiary to agriculture or a backyard vocation. Animal husbandry has metamorphosed into an industry and the latest reports suggest that the contribution of animal husbandry sector to the GDP of the nation is substantially higher despite the meager input. Animal husbandry offers a better scope for marginal farmers whose income from agriculture is dwindling fast due to vagaries of monsoon, fragmentation of landholdings, pest problems, poor pricing etc. Though the growth of livestock industry is very promising, in order to make India a global leader in animal husbandry, it is imperative to integrate it with developments in other fields. The developments in Information Technology over the past few decades are tremendous and offer great potential in improving animal health through various measures like effective disease forecasting, rapid and accurate disease diagnosis, modern therapeutic measures etc.

Veterinary Informatics is the discipline concerned with the application of information science, engineering, and computer technology to support veterinary health care. Veterinary informatics and the larger field of medical informatics is often called health care informatics or biomedical informatics and forms part of the wider domain of e-health. Applications of Information Technology in different aspects of animal health are discussed below.

Introduction

Decision making is the most important aspect of any business and industry. Farming is a business and agriculture is also an industry. Hence, decision making plays an important role with regard to the problems concerning production of commodities. The main questions before the producer or the production manager are: (i) What to produce, (ii) How to produce, and (iii) How much to produce.

Linear programming (LP) is a modeling tool that can assist in the solution of many problems in agriculture. It is useful in selecting the best alternative from a number of available course of actions.

LP models are designed to “optimize” a specific objective criterion subject to a set of constraints. The quality of the resulting solution depends on the completeness of the model in representing the real system.

I. MANDATE OF COPYRIGHT LAW

The importance of intellectual property rights has arisen in recent years to a great extent. The law of copyrights protects original forms of expression i.e. Novels, Movies, Musical compositions and computer software etc. Earlier it was mainly confined to the -published Work and owner of it could prevent others from getting it published in the form of books or articles in order to get benefit in terms of money or goodwill or reputation. In case of such undue enrichment, the owner had a valid cause of action. The owner of the copyright has a valid cause of action against the violator. At present even in case of its adoption and translation or abridgement, it is obligatory to have consent of author. The main purpose and object of copyright law is to protect the expression in any other form from unauthorized use. Since 1847, the copyrights law is in developing stage so, many legislations has been enacted.1 With the changing of times, the meaning of expression also changes and the style of exhibit the things also changed. The right of author who gives expression in any form is protected from unauthorized use.

Directing is concerned with telling subordinates what to do and ensuring that they do it as best as they can. It includes assigning tasks and duties, explaining procedures, issuing orders, providing on-the-job instructions, monitoring performance, and correcting deviations.

Directing must have two dimensions, namely, i) magnitude and ii) aim or direction.

The directing function includes the following:

1. Supervising
2. Guiding
3. Leading
4. Motivating, and
5. Communicating

Materials Management deals with purchasing and controlling of the materials used in the production process.

Materials (Goods) Planning and Control

Decisions to be taken in this are:

• Amount of materials needed for output desired
• Amount of inventory and its storage and reordering
• Vendor relations
• Quality materials and price per unit
• Quantity and time of order
• Methods of receiving and transporting
• Handling of defective materials and stock

Policies and procedures should be established so that most of these decisions become routine in nature. When exceptions occur, the concerned authority should correct them.

The most of the animal population of the world?s lies in regions where frequent seasonal stressors adversely influence the health and productivity. The adaptation of animals to thermal stress is a physiological; biochemical process under endocrine control opens new opportunities to use of endocrine regulation as means of improving thermal tolerance. The animals raised in the semi-arid tropics, usually exhibit low productivity because of shortages of feed and harsh climatic conditions (Maurya et al., 2004). Heat stress can impact animal production and profitability in dairy cattle by lowering feed intake, milk production and reproduction. The animal production is affected by elevated ambient temperature which intern affects the availability of quality feed fodder and water. The indirect effects of climate driven changes in animal performance result mainly from alterations in the nutritional environment of the grazing livestock (Topp and Doyle , 1996). In tropical region most of the time is being spent by animals in the search of feed and fodder. The excess walking stress in the livestock reduces their body condition score and oftenly animal exposed to negative energy balance (Maurya et al., 2010). Under present climate conditions, the lack of ability of animals to dissipate the environmental heat determines that, in many areas in the world, animals suffer heat stress during, at least, part of the year. Heat stress has a variety of detrimental effects on livestock (Fuquay, 1981), with significant effects on milk production and reproduction in dairy cows (Johnson, 1987). The severity of stress and milk production by a cow depends on THI, length of heat stress period, air flow, size of cow, dry matter intake, water availability and coat colour.

At the moment India is world leader in milk production, closely followed by the USA, with a production volume of 84 million tons. More than half of the milk is produced by buffaloes. India has about three times as many ?dairy? animals as the USA, the vast majority (over 80 percent) being kept in herds of 2 to 8 animals. Annual milk yield per dairy animal is about one tenth of that achieved in the USA and about one fifth of the yield of a New Zealand dairy cow. As per India?s National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), the country produced 121 mt of milk in 2010-11 fiscal, which comprised about 17% of global production.

Livestock are homeotherms and has to maintain their body temperature at a fairly constant level through various means of heat gain and heat loss mechanisms. In order to survive in an environment for longer period the energy gain must equal to energy loss. The remarkable interaction has occurred between climate, soil, plants and animals during course of evolution. The maintenance of high level of production in hot regions is difficult as the large amount of heat has to be dissipated besides heat imposed by the environment. Similarly in cold regions, the animal has to produce extra heat to meet the thermoregulatory demand. Considerable variations occur between different species, and between different individual within a species in their capacity to adjust to environmental stress. The farm animals prefer an internal body temperature range from 36-40°C. Normal body temperature of livestock species are:

Cattle: 101-102^oF, Buffalo: 100.5-102°F, Sheep: 102-103°F and Goat: 102.5-103^oF

All the metabolic reactions are under control of various enzymes. The optimum ranges of temperature for activities of these enzymes incidentally fall in the range of normal body temperature. The body keeps its core temperature constant at about 37°C by physiological adjustments controlled by the hypothalamus. A group of neurons, located in anterior hypothalamus, are sensitive to change in skin as well as blood temperature. This hypothalamic centre acts as a “thermostat”. When core body temperature deviated from the thermostat temperature, numerous thermoregulatory mechanisms are initiated to bring back the core body temperature normal. However, in certain instance eg. fever the set point temperature of thermoregulatory control centre is raised. The hypothalamic thermostat works in conjunction with other hypothalamic, autonomic and higher nervous thermoregulatory centers to keep the core temperature constant. Some of these thermoregulatory responses are involuntary, mediated by the autonomic nervous system, some are neurohormonal and others are semi-voluntary or voluntary behavioral responses.

The establishment and the longevity of the organisms from one to complex multiple cells are controlled both by climate and weather in a region. Climate(macro level physical factor) of a region permits a particular organism to initiate its establishment, while the prevailing weather (micro level of the climate factor) which is known to occur within that climate controls the growth and multiplication of the selected organisms and thus proving the immense need of both climate and weather to living organisms. Within this science, when the weather is favorable for a particular organism throughout the year in a region, which cause disease to higher organisms then that region is termed as endemic region to a particular disease, where the management is focused towards strategical(long term) and tactical(short term) approaches. When in a year, from few weeks to few months the weather may be highly favorable for the outbreak of a particular disease, then that region is named as epidemic region for that disease and by establishing scientific link between weather and disease causing organism, it is possible to forecast / predict disease initiation in time and practice tactical management. Among the weather factors, temperature(both maximum and minimum), rainfall (amount and its distribution), relative humidity(both maximum and minimum) wind speed, dew, fog and mist would influence the organisms causing disease in livestock both in positive and negative terms. This is the new emerging area in the field of animal climatology and an attempt has been made to integrate animal diseases with climate and weather factors based on the available literature. Scope for research is vast in this new area and is discussed in a sub-head of the conclusion.

In the existing planetary system, life was established and growing over millions of years on earth. If we track down to the history of evolution, beginning with a living unicellular organisms Amoeba, growing to a gigantic size of Dinosaur and stabilizing at well adaptable stage of an Elephant in animal kingdom or to reach the present status of the intelligent human being, throughout these developmental stages the climatic/meteorological factors play a crucial and supportive role. Further the Development of plant/Animal kingdom is making rapid strides in tropical climatic zones where the temperature ambient ranges between 20⁰C to 40⁰C and the rain fall/humidity factors are moderate. We are fortunate enough that India is geographically located in tropical zone. This classic location advantage of the country in the world geographical map helped the country in keeping India as number one milk producer in the world, no 3 producer in poultry egg production, number 5 in horticulture production i.e fruits and vegetables. Climate change affects livestock both directly and indirectly. Direct effects from temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind speed and other climate factors, aggravates the heat stress in dairy animals, and influences animal performance badly: in growth factors, milk production in Dairy animals, mutton production/ wool production in case of sheep. egg and meat production in poultry, and reproductive aspects in all the species. The indirect impact of these factors on livestock may result on economic, nutritional and health aspects of human society and also its contribution to the economy of the country.

Sheep and goats in temperate regions are seasonal breeders with breeding activity mostly restricted to short day seasons of the year (Maule 1962). Endocrine mechanisms regulated by the variations of the day length stimulate reproductive activity to have maximum conceptions during the period of shorter days and correspondingly maximum births during longer day periods after a 5 months gestation (Hafez, 1987). Thus, essence of seasonal breeding is to ensure maximum births during the period congenial for survival of young ones, including availability of feeding materials and favorable climate. In tropical regions with minimum variation of day length and less distinct seasons, feed availability is not much affected by seasons in particular. Hence most species of animals maintains reproductive activity throughout the year (Devendra and Burns 1983). However there found to have influence of various locally relevant factors affecting comfort of living such as feed availability, weather and other environmental factors. Accordingly, there occur seasonal peaks and periods of restricted reproductive activity and pattern of the same can vary according to the local situations prevailing year to year (Goel and Agarwal, 1988 and Wani et al. 1980).

Demand of livestock products is on the rise in India. India?s demand forecast for milk, mutton, egg production is more than the current supply of these products. To meet this demand entrepreneurship initiatives are need of the hour .Further, younger generation of India seems more interested in commercial dairy farming rather than subsistence based farming. Therefore, entrepreneurial training to farmers is essential. An average entrepreneur faces several barriers to start a new enterprise. Some of them are as under

Setting up livestock enterprise be it a small dairy unit, goat unit, milk and meat processing plant, selling parlor requires capital. Lack of access to credit to expand the herd is a critical problem for farmers. There is little access to formal credit through the cooperatives or banks. Informal credit is available from private traders and agents of private companies, but the interest rate is very high. Keeping this situation in mind and to provide financial support from banks few major dairy entrepreneurship schemes have been developed and implemented by banks with the support of state animal husbandry departments across different parts of the country. National Bank on Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) is the lead bank for financial support of such schemes.

Expectations from Veterinarian as Extension Officer to Promote Entrepreneurship

The veterinarian has to act as facilitators to exchange experiences, share knowledge and information and participate in joint problem-solving. This requires linking farmers with the right support institutions and individuals who have expertise to deal with their specific concerns. Therefore, extension workers need to understand the training needs of the farmers and to identify the best trainers or training institutions to meet those needs. Part of this involves creating awareness about the training programme and explaining the objectives and content to potential trainees.

Extension workers should also assess the impact of the training on the behaviour of the participants and on the farm business Impact assessment is essential because it is the true indicator of the relevance and effectiveness of the training programme.

Extension workers can also provide more general support in the form of study visits, study tours. Farmers observe ?good entrepreneurial practices?, and learn from the practices of others. Farmers are taken on a tour. See markets first-hand, visit input suppliers and buyers, and make contacts. Farmers also visit farmers in other areas to exchange experiences and see new techniques. Such visits can transform a farmer?s view on production and marketing. Visits should be followed up with periodic evaluations to assess the impact of the visit and the use of new practices and techniques. They can also arrange seminars with possible topics like entrepreneurship, farm business management, market possibilities, successful case studies, new technologies, price assessments and market-oriented production techniques. Extension workers can also facilitate farmers working with producer organizations. Producer organizations can make useful contributions to developing entrepreneurship among farmers.

Project Appraisal : Assessing Project Benefits

Project appraisal helps to determine which among various projects one is to accept and which to reject. This is however possible only when costs and benefits have been identified, priced, and valued. A number of techniques of project appraisal can be discussed under two heads :

Abstract

The article briefly narrates the initiatives taken by the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India, New Delhi in providing solutions to rapidly growing Landslide Disasters in India. Duly considering the importance of the issue, the DST has embarked on a National Landslide Programme more than two decades ago and brought voluminous information on Landslide Vulnerability Mapping, Site Specific Landslide Investigations, Landslide Kinematics, Instrument Based Forewarning etc. by funding large number of research projects to various Academic/Research institutions in the country. In addition, the bilateral collaborative programme launched on Geohazards between India & Norway, resulted in bilateral flow of knowledge and capacity building amongst various tiers of the Academic, Research and the Planning Hierarchy, yielding tangible benefits.

Keywords: Landslides in India, DST’s Initiatives.

INTRODUCTION

Landslides cause extensive damages to roads, bridges, human dwellings, agricultural lands, forests and other establishments year after year resulting in immense losses of life and properties. The entire Himalayan region has been the target of intense development activities for the last few decades. Hence the instabilities along the natural slopes are accentuated by the human activities since the development schemes are often not properly planned and implemented (Valdiya 1980; Thakur 2001). This has become the case in most of the mountains in India. Keeping in view of the stability of the slopes, the need of the hour is to achieve sustainable development of the hilly regions while implementing various developmental schemes. So there has to be a major S&T role to play to minimize the landslide problems. This should include all possible corrective and preventive measures to minimize the losses due to this disaster.