eChapters

Introduction

In India, concern for the protection of intellectual properties took place way back in 1911 through the Indian Design Act.  Since then laws (Indian Patent Act, 1970 and its amendments) were enacted for the protection of various intellectual properties. However, the subject matter of intellectual property did not receive attention in agricultural sector, although scientists and farmers have been developing new plant varieties for almost the entire part of our agricultural history.  The development of new crop varieties on a scientific basis began only in the last 50 years with advanced knowledge of genetics and plant breeding. The entry of genetics into plant breeding resulted in major advances culminating in the development of high yielding hybrids and varieties. Indian agriculture witnessed the arrival of hybrids and high yielding crop varieties in the 1960s, during the Green Revolution.

Introduction
   
The major land mark in the primary food production is the Green revolution during sixties, eventually leading the country to self-sufficiency in food grains. At present, agriculture and allied sector contributes 22% of GDP in India. Total arable area in India is 184 million hectares contributing a total food grain production of 210.01 million tonnes. Horticultural crops including fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation crops, spices and medicinal and aromatic plants have emerged as a major economic activity in India. Horticulture crops cover over 20.7  million hectares of area, which is approximately 11.25%  of the total gross cropped area of the country and contributes 18-20% of the gross value of India’s agricultural output. India is the world’s second largest fruit and vegetable producing country accounting for 81.29 million tonnes of fruit and 162.2 million tonnes of vegetables (Annon., 2013).

Introduction

Food processing is an important sector in agriculture, the scope of which has increased manifold that can help to prevent wastage of perishable commodities to a great extent. But, at the same time, the food processing industries generate a large quantity and variety of food products, provide employment to a large number of people and uplift their economic status. The production, processing and preparation of food, all results in generation of huge quantity of waste material causing health hazards due to environmental pollution. The waste material may be in the form of leaf/ straw, waste during harvesting, food preparation waste, after processing waste, unused material as waste, food processing operation waste, etc. The huge wastage of the food material is due to lack of control on such agri-economy practices. So, the disposal of waste material has become a challenge to the processors, as different agencies are pressurizing for an environment friendly treatment of waste material. The utilization of waste for the production of value added products is very important in the management of food processing waste.

Introduction

Foods deteriorate in quality due to a wide range of reactions that may be physical, chemical or biological. The various forms of spoilage and food poisoning caused by micro-organisms are preventable to a large degree by a number of preservation techniques, most of which act by preventing or slowing microbial growth. These include freezing, chilling, drying, curing, conserving, vacuum packing, modified atmosphere packing, acidifying, fermenting, and adding preservatives. Thermal processes such as blanching, pasteurization or heat sterilization have long been employed in practice as economic, efficient, reliable and safe food preservation methods.

Fruit trees like ber, aonla, jamun, tamarind, custard apple, bael, lasora, phalsa, ker, pilu, etc well suited for arid environment, remained under exploited owing particularly to lack of appreciation of their quality as fruits, their economic potential and above all due to non-availability of the needed technology for their profitable cultivation. Because of their curative properties, these fruits have been used in Indian system of medicine such as Ayurvedic and Unani since time immemorial. Apart from their nutritive and medicinal values, quite a few of these underutilized fruits have excellent flavour and very attractive colour. In spite of these quality attributes, most have not undergone any conscious phase of domestication and human selection. Their cultivation is very restricted and they grow mainly wild. Being tolerant to biotic and abiotic stresses, these fruit species are suitable for growing in the disaster- and drought-prone areas.India has a rich heritage of indigenous fruit types. Significant advances have been made in recent times towards providing technology support for their cultivation.

Introduction

Packaging and storage are two most important operations in post harvest supply chain of fresh and processed fruits and vegetables. The self-life, damage, loss, sale and profit from commodities depend on storage and packaging parameters. The primary objective of packaging of fruits and vegetables is to protect the contents during storage, transportation and distribution against deterioration, which may be physical, chemical, or biological. Packaging is hence provided at the point of production or processing or at distribution centers. Though packaging forms the last link in the chain of production, storage, marketing and distribution, it still plays an important role in delivering the contents safe from the ‘‘farm gate to the consumer plate.’’ Increase in production can have an impact on the consumer only when the food is wholesome, unadulterated and available under hygienic conditions at an economical price.

Introduction

Fruits and vegetables are an important supplement to the human diet as they provide the essential minerals, vitamins and fibre required for maintaining health. For various reasons, this abundance of production is not fully utilized and about 25-30% of it is wasted due to spoilage. Most of fruits and vegetables are seasonal crops and perishable in nature. In a good season there may be a local glut, particularly of fruits, but because of insufficient transport facilities and poor availability of packing materials, the surplus cannot be taken quickly enough to the natural markets in urban areas. Moreover, the surplus often cannot be stored for sale in the off-season because of inadequate local cold storage facilities. Thus the growers do not get a good price for their produce because of the glut and some of it is spoiled resulting in complete loss.

Introduction

India has very old and long tradition of flower cultivation. With changing life styles and increased urban affluence, floriculture has assumed a definite commercial status in recent times. Improved communication facilities have increased their availability in every part of the country. Floriculture in India is being viewed as a rapidly growing industry. In India, at present total area under flower crops is about 2,33,000 ha with production of about 17.29 lakh tonnes of loose flowers and 76732 lakh  number of cut flowers (NHB database, 2013).The important floricultural crops in the international flower trade are rose, carnation, chrysanthemum, gerbera, gladious, gypsophila, liastris, bird of paradise, orchids, anthurium, tulip, lilies, etc. All the flowers and ornamentals are the most perishable commodities needs special care during harvesting, handling, storage and transport. The losses can be both, quantitative as well as qualitative, which result in loss in terms of monitory value.

Introduction

Marketing sector via value addition has gained momentum with the rapidly growing flora industry. It is the ultimate way to rescue the flowers from the huge postharvest losses. Value addition in form of floral craft increases the economic value and consumer appeal of floricultural commodities and serving as a linkage between growers and consumers, it directly emphasizes the utility of flowers and a necessity for marketing of flowers. Other forms of value addition in flowers like essential oils, tinting, flower-drying, natural dye, art of floral arrangements are gaining momentum and popularising in our country as well.

Introduction

Flowers are associated with mankind since the dawn of civilization. Flowers are required for all the functions, ceremonies, rituals and celebrations from dawn to the dusk. In India, flowers are mainly grown for cut flowers and loose flowers purpose. By using best postharvest techniques, we can preserve the flowers ranging from few days to few weeks, but drying or dehydration is a technique by which flowers can be preserved for months to years. India has rich biodiversity comprising of wide variety of ornamental trees, shrubs, climbers, etc. which are not being used as fresh or loose flowers but their branched, twigs, flowers, fruits, cones, stems, roots, bark, etc. can be dehydrated to preserve their beauty and for utilization in dry flower industry.

Introduction

Landscape gardening is a very fascinating and interesting subject. It is a money spinner business and people who are involved in designing and preparing landscape gardens are earning handsome money. It is an aesthetic branch of horticulture which deals with application of garden forms, different styles, methods and materials with a view to improve the landscape. Frescos of flowers of old times reveal the association of human with flowering plants which they used in making gardens and planting on road side. In India, the landscape gardening is a developing subject and as such offers much scope for improvement. A beautiful landscape is a vital part of your home and community. A well-planned landscape can save your money by reducing energy consumption.

Introduction

Increasing concern about climate change and global warming has created immense awareness among society about green house gas and its reduction. Irrespective of the geographical location, population density and economic development of any region, there is a huge scope for addressing the green house gas emission. Cities have a key role to play in the global agenda for addressing the challenge of climate change. Today, approximately half of the world’s population lives in cities; by 2050, that proportion will probably have increased to two-thirds. India has the highest rate of change of the urban population and will remain above 2% annually for the next three decades. At this rate, an estimated 854 million people will live in Indian cities by 2050.

With the advent of modernization and urbanization, people are shifting from rural to urban areas, thereby, urban population is increasing day by day resulting in congested cities and towns. All around the world, a huge number of buildings are being constructed adding many more in future. Throughout the years, replacement of vegetated surfaces with paved and impervious surfaces in the urban areas have increased the temperature as compared to rural areas, because the paved surfaces absorbs, retain and reradiate more solar energy than vegetation. The ambient temperature in urban area can be as much as 6oC higher than the air in rural areas.

Introduction

Landscaping refers to art and science of proper utilization of garden forms, methods and materials for the overall improvement of the place in such a way that it blends with surrounding and creates aesthetics. It is an approach to enhance the appearance of land by altering its contours, and planting trees, shrubs, climbers and various ornamental plants for aesthetic effects. It is the prerequisite for the urban areas that are highly polluted and densely populated. The urbanites now-a-days are facing many problems relating to the health because of imbalance in the environmental conditions.In today’s world, with the rapid pace of urbanization and the growing concern for climate change led to the increasing trend of bringing nature back into cities. Removal of greenery and replaced them with buildings and paved streets increase the surface radiation and air temperature that result to drier and hotter environment for urban cities compared to the rural areas. In this context, the demand for planned and creative exterior landscaping increases which allows the man to re-create an aesthetic environment with breath taking life. Exterior landscaping is the means of bringing man closer to the nature. It is also referred as outdoor landscaping and has gained wide popularity now-a-days because of the expansion of the urban areas along with increase interest of people towards healthier and cleaner environment.

Introduction

Humans and grass are inextricably linked to each other. The oldest unequivocal grass fossils are 25 million years old, originating in the Oligocene epoch (Thomasson, 1987). Grasses are one of the first permanent vegetation to reappear after disasters, such as volcanic activity, extended droughts, floods, fires, explosions, abandoned urban ghettos, and battlefields. In the past, landscaping was universally regarded as an extravagance for the affluent or as a decorative for mediocre and average structural design. Today, growers offer hundreds of selections for landscape designers who envision their backyard canvases swept with fulsome grasses. Countries are capitalizing on this industry at a furious pace and turfgrass research can be circuitously, the next moolah machine for enhancing lifestyle, real estate values and tourism revenues.

Abnormal milk: It is milk that is not smooth and homogenous but is flaky, ropy, stringy, slimy, watery, discoloured or bad flavoured.
 
Abrassive peeler: It is equipment comprising a rotating drum lined with carborandum (an abrasive material) in which certain vegetables like potato and ginger are tumbled and exposed to the abrasive action of the carborandum lining, thereby facilitating separation of peel from the vegetables (Plate 1).

Absinthe: It is green liquor which is flavored with wormwood, anise, and other aromatic herbs. Its commercial production is banned in many countries for health concerns.

B.T.U.: It stands for British thermal unit. The heat required to raise the temperature of one pond of the water through 1^° F is called BTU.
Baby back ribs: Meaty pork ribs cut from the lower back rib section.

Bacitracin: A polypeptide antibiotic isolated from a bacillus (Bacillus subtilis or B. licheniformis) and usually used against gram-positive bacteria.

Back Bacon / Canadian bacon: Bacon cut from the loin that has little fat and is cut into round or oblong slices.

C - enamel can: The sulphur resistant lacquer is golden coloured and the can coated with it are called C-enamel can or sulphure resistant can, used for packing non acid products (Plate 35).

CA storage: Storage of commodities under gaseous atmosphere like gas storage, where the composition of atmosphere is controlled accurately. MA and CA differ only in degree of control and CA is more exact. These storage methods in combination with refrigeration markedly enhance storage life of fruit and vegetables (Plate 36).

Dahi: It is the product obtained from pasteurized or boiled milk by souring, natural or by harmless lactic acid or other bacterial culture. It is also called Curd (Plate 68)

Dairy: It is a room, building, or establishment where milk is kept and butter / cheese is made or it is the department of farming / farm that is concerned with the production of milk, butter, and cheese or an establishment for the sale / and distribution of milk and milk products.

E numbers: Each food additive used in the food industry has been given a specific number code for their identification. These numbers are called as E numbers. These E numbers are used within the European Union. The word prefix “E” stands for Europe. They are commonly used on the food label through out the European Union. These are not used in Australia and New Zealand. The different food additives are given different E numbers depending upon the type of food additive like E100-E199 (food colours), E200-E299 (preservative), E300-E399 (antioxidants), E400-E499 (thickners, stabilizers, emulsifier), E500-E599 (pH regulator, anticaking agent), E600- E699 (flavour enhancers), E700-E799 (antibiotics), E900-E999 (miscellaneous like waxes, synthetic glazes, packaging gases, sweetners, foaming agents),  and E1000-E1099 (additional chemicals).

Fº value: It is used to express F-value when z =10ºC / 18ºF and the temperature is 121.1ºC. It is the number of minutes at a specific temperature (250ºC) required to destroy or kill a stated number of microorganisms and has specific z-value. It is also called reference value. 

Galactometer: It is an instrument used for recording the specific gravity of the milk.

Galactose: It is an aldohexose sugar obtained by hydrolysis of lactose.

Galactosidase: An enzyme (actase) that hydrolyzes a galactoside.

Galactoside: A glycoside that yields galactose on hydrolysis.

Galactosyl: A glycosyl radical C₆H₁₁O₅ that is derived from galactose.

HACCP: The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) is a scientific, rational and systematic approach to identify, assess and control hazards during production, processing, manufacturing and use of food. It ensures safety of the food. HACCP presents a good opportunity for the food industry for upgrading quality and bringing uniformity and consistency in their supplies to international market, or It is a systematic preventive approach to food safety that addresses physical, chemical and biological hazards as a mean of prevention rather than finished product inspection. It involves identification, evaluation and control of hazards which are significant for food safety.

HACCP plan: A document prepared in accordance with the principles of HACCP to ensure control of hazards which are significant for food safety throughout the food chain under consideration.

Haemagglutinins: A group of proteins of plants that are not antibodies and do not originate in an immune system but bind specifically to carbohydrate containing receptors on cell surfaces (red blood cells). It is also known as Phytoagglutins/lectins.

Haff disease: A pyrolysis due to the excessive consumption of various fresh water fish which contain the vitamin antithiamine.

Ice bank cooling: Storing of fruit and vegetable in storage chamber with positive ventilation and system countries where ice formation is allowed during night time (as electricity cost of night is less as compared to the day time). Melting of ice occurs during day time and with proper air circulation by means of ventilation process, approximately 0.5-1⁰C temperature with 90% RH in the chamber is maintained. Ice Bank Cooler / Air forced cooler leads to desiccation of the produce (Plate 139). So use forced air high humidity cooler and these are known as Ice Bank Cooler. Ice bank coolers are useful for strawberry.

Jaggery: Raw brown / unrefined brown sugar in lump made from palm sap (Plate 142).

Jam: A preserved product prepared on boiling pectin contained in fruit pulp with required amount of sugar, water and acid to a reasonably thick consistency, firm enough to hold the fruit tissues in position (Plate 143).

Kalamata / calamata: It is brine cured black olive grown in Greece.

Kamucha: Tea cider or fermented tea beverages is known as kamucha.The fermentation process take place by the presence of yeast and bacteria

Kanji: Clean, black coloured, crisp and sound product of characteristic flavor prepared by full fermentation (chiefly lactic acid fermentation) of black carrot with 2.5% salt, 1% powder mustard and some amount of water. It is fermented to make ready to serve drink which is known as Kanji. Each kilogram of the grated carrots yield just 7-8 litres of kanji.

Karl Fischer Titration: Karl Fischer Titration is used for estimation of moisture content of foods (low moisture products).

Lab coat: A loose white coat with deep pockets that is worn in a laboratory or medical office.

Labelling: It means any written, printed or graphic matter that is present on the label, accompanies the food or is displayed near the food, including that for the purpose of promoting its sale or disposal. After packaging, labels are required on the finished products intended for distribution and sale. Labelling can reflect on the quality of the product. It must be clear and informative. Information includes Name of the Manufacturer, Date of Manufacture, Net Weight, Gross Weight, Best before etc. Proper storage is needed for maintenance of the quality. Storage must be done only at recommended temperature, relative humidity, light and air / oxygen and carbon dioxide conditions etc. to maintain the quality of the food product. Label may include tag, brand, and pictorial or descriptive matter, written, printed, embossed, graphic, perforated, stencilled or stamped impressions. It is attached to container, cover, lid, or crown of a food package.

Laboratory: A place equipped for experimental study in a science or for testing and analysis. Broadly, it is a place providing opportunity for experimentation, observation, or practice in a field of study.

Lacquer: It is a colloidal dispersion of a solution of cellulose derivative, resin and plasticizer in solvent and diluents, where in all these constituents dried in air by evaporation of solvents, thus yielding a transparent, hard and water proof film.

Macaroni: Pasta made from semolina and shaped in the form of slender tubes.

Macaroni wheat: It is tetraploid wheat and is preferred for making macaroni, vermicelli etc.

Macaroon: A small cookie composed chiefly of egg whites, sugar, and ground almonds or coconut.

Mace: An aromatic spice consisting of the dried external fibrous covering of a nutmeg.

Macronutrient: A chemical element (as nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium) of which relatively large quantities are essential to the growth and health of a plant or a substance (as protein or carbohydrate) essential in large amounts to the growth and health of an animal.

Magnesium silicate: It is use as glazing and polishing agents in confectionery products.

Magness - Taylor Pressure Tester: It is used to study the compression or firmness of peas, pear and apples.

Naïve panel: It refers to the sensory evaluation panel that has not been trained specifically regarding the product evaluation being undertaken in the study.

Nano technology: It is the art of manipulating materials on an atomic or molecular scale to build microscopic devices. The word “ nano’ meaning ‘dwarf” in Greek language refers to dimension / magnitude of the material / particle in the order of 10⁹. Nanotechnology is nothing but manipulating of particles into very small particles called nano-particles. These particles have dimensions in the scale of nano-meter and used to design / build materials and devices. Nanotechnology has been provisionally defined as relating to materials, systems and processes which operate at a scale of 100 nanometers (nm) or less. It will allow many things to be manufactured at low cost and with no pollution. The concept of nanotechnology was first given by Nobel Laureate physicist Richard P. Feynman in Southern California in 1959.

NaNO_2: Pink colour of cured meat is preserved by NaNO₂. It is effective against Cl. Botulinosm

Nanogram: It is one billionth of a gram.

Objective Methods: Objective Methods are used for evaluation of food quality. These are based on recognized standard scientific tests to any sample of the product without regard to its previous history. They represent the modern idea in quality control (QC) because the human element has been excluded. This method divided into three groups like physical, chemical and microbiological. The devices are used in this evaluation.

Obligate anaerobes: These microbes do no grow in the presence of oxygen.

Obligate parasite: Obligate parasites is host specific and grows on living host only and attach limited range of host and are very difficult or impossible to grow on artificial culture/media.

Obligate thermophile: These microorganisms grow at a temperature between 38-80^oC.

Oenology: Treatments used to prevent spoilage of wine is called oenology. It is synonym to that of enology.

Pack inspection: It is similar to continuous inspection except that here inspector(s) may make in-process checks during different processing operations under contract but not required to be present all the times in the plant during operation.

Package: The package means a pre packed box, tin, barrel, pouch or can etc in which food article is packed.

Package store: A store that sells bottled or canned alcoholic beverages for consumption off the premises.

Packaging: Packaging is an industrial and marketing technique for containing, protecting, identifying and facilitating the sale and distribution of agricultural, industrial and consumer products. Packaging is defined as an enclosure of products, items or package in a wrapped pouch, bags, box, cup, bottle or any container form to perform one or more of the functions as containment, protection and preservation, communication and utility or performance. Technically, packaging is a system or method by which a product from the manufacturing point to the consumer level reaches in a safe and sound condition at an affordable cost. The primary purpose of the packaging is to protect the food product, to keep it in good condition and to preserve the flavour until it reaches the consumer. It is therefore, very essential that a suitable form of the packaging is chosen for a finished product. Packaging is an art, which determines the buying decision of a consumer. or Wrapping / placement of objects in paper / other packaging materials, keeping in box, etc is known as packaging which has two main functions, to assemble the produce / objects in convenient units for handling and to protect them during transporting, marketing and storage which results in extended shelf life of the produce. "Packaging" play a very important role not only in ensuring safety of the product during transportation, storage and distribution and in conveying information about the pack contents to the consumers, but also ensuring desired sensory characteristics and microbiological soundless till consumed.

Q₁₀value: The number of times a reaction rate change with a 10^oC change in temperature is called Q ₁₀value. If reaction rate doubles with 10^oC change in temperature, Q ₁₀= 2. It is also called temperature quotient.

Q-enzyme: It is a branching enzyme responsible for formation of 1-6 bonds in amylopectin.

QHV process: It stands for Quality Has Value Process.

QO₂ : It is a unit for measurement of respiration. Or It is the oxygen uptake in microlitres per milligram on dry weight per hour.

Quailing: In this practice the oranges are kept in the baskets in which they are harvested to allow the fruit to loose little moisture. It is done for a couple of hours before transport to packhouse. This practice would allow the fruit to lose a little moisture which is called quailing. This operation is done for oranges to prevent Oleocellosis.

Qualitative measurement: It is a subjective / objective measurement of the quality of the product for presence of certain compound. It gives the idea of the presence or absence of the particular compound. It deals with the nature of the substance and not its amount or quantity.

Quality: Quality is a measure of the degree of excellence or degree of acceptability by the consumer. The quality may also be defined in term of end use and may vary depending upon consumer’s perception and need. Or quality is the totality of features and characteristics of a product that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. It is a term defined by the consumer, buyer, grader, or any other client based on subjective and objective measurements of the food product.

R - Enamel can: The acid resistant, gold coloured enamel treated can are called R enamel cans. It is used for canning of acidic food which have soluble colouring pigments.

R value: R value is a measure of resistance to the flow of heat through a given thickness of a material (insulation) with higher numbers indicating better insulating properties.

Rabbitto and putridity: The surface taint of the milk caused by Pseudomonas putrefaciens is called rabbitto and putridity.

Racking: An important operation for the wine production in which wine is siphoned off and is transferred to a fresh vat with the help of a false bottom. Racking is repeated decanting to remove the slowly setting cloud of the freshly fermented young wine. It is also called clarification. It is synonym to siphoning.

Rad: It is the unit of radiation dose being equivalent to the absorption of 100 erg/g of irradiated material.

Radappertization: It means complete sterilization of foods by using irradiation. It is equivalent to commercial sterility. High dose of the radiation (25-45 kGy) is required for killing all microbes.

Saccharification: The process of breaking a complex carbohydrate (starch or cellulose) into its monosaccharide components is called saccharification.

Saccharimeter: A device (polarimeter) used for measuring the amount of sugar in a solution is called saccharimeter. It is also known as saccharometer. It is a hydrometer with a special scale.

Saccharin: A crystalline compound C₇H₅NO₃S that is unrelated to the carbohydrates, is several hundred times sweeter than sucrose, and is used as a calorie free sweetener.

Saccharomyces: It is one of the genus (Saccharomyces) of the family Saccharomycetaceae and is usually unicellular yeasts (brewer's yeast) that are distinguished by their sparse or absent mycelium and reproduced asexually by budding.

Safe food: Food that provide maximum nutrition and quality while revealing a minimal hazard to public health and they assume any risk present to be minimal.

Safety: Safety is a component of quality. Many experts believe that food safety is the most important quality component since a lack of safety can result in serious injury and even death of the consumer.

Table cream: It is also called coffee cream, single cream or homogenized cream. It is used in coffee and tests about 20% butter fat.

Table oil expeller: It is a type of the machine that is used for extraction of the oil from the oil seeds (Plate 230).

U value: U value is a measure of the heat transmission through a building part (wall or window) or through a given thickness of a material (insulation). U values with lower numbers indicate better insulating properties.

UHT milk: This milk is homogenized, heated to atleast 135^oC for about 2-3 second, cooled rapidly and then packed in sterilized containers aseptically. The milk in packs can be stored for several months without refrigeration. The nutrient loss is negligible. Used for making yogurt commercially as it does not need to be boiled again.

UHT pasteurization: The milk is heated to ~150^oC for a fraction of seconds practically no holding period. It is also called ultra pasteurization.

UHT sterilization: It is method in which food is sterilized, cooled and then aseptically placed in previously sterilized containers which are subsequently sealed in an aseptic environment.

Ultimate analysis: It is used for determination of a particular element or a compound in a food material.

Ultra heat treated milk: It is designation of the milk sold for liquid consumption after subjection to ultra high temperature to sterilize the milk by killing bacteria and other microbes including spores.

Vacreation: The pasteurization of the milk or cream under reduced pressure by direct steam is called vacreation.

Vacuum: The state of negative pressure. It is equal to atmospheric pressure minus absolute pressure.

Vacuum cooling: A technique of cooling vegetable (leafy vegetables, asparagus, brussels sprouts) having a high surface to volume ratio; rapidly and uniformly by boiling off some of their water at 1⁰C and at low pressure (5 mm of Hg) into a sealed container. The produce is cooled by evaporation of water from the tissue surface and is more rapid than hydro cooling.

Wafer: A thin crisp cake, candy, cracker or chips is known as wafer.

Waffle: A crisp cake of batter baked in a waffle iron is called waffle

Warner-Bartzler Shear: It is one of the oldest but commonly used devices used to measure the tenderness of meat. It is used to test the quality in the cooked meat

Xanthan gum: It is a polysaccharide that is produced by fermentation of carbohydrates by a gramnegative bacterium (Xanthomonas campestris) and is a thickening and suspending agent used in pharmaceuticals and prepared foods. It is also called xanthan. Xanthan is a stabilizer produced by Xanthomonascompestris(Plate 257). Xanthan is not hydrolysed or degraded by humans.

Yabby: It is one of the burrowing Australian crayfishes (Cherax destructor) that are used for food.

Yakitori: A bite-size marinated pieces of beef, seafood, or chicken on skewers is called yakitori.

Yam: It is edible starchy tuberous root of plants (genus Dioscorea of the family Dioscoreaceae) used as a staple food in tropical areas.

Yautia: It is one of the aroid plants (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) chiefly of tropical America with starchy edible shaggy brown tubers that are cooked and eaten like yams or potatoes.

Yearling mutton: Meat obtained from 12-20 month aged sheep. It is also called Earling mutton.

Yeast: Unicellular plant body, very minute in size containing cell wall, cytoplasm with one or more vacuoles and a single nucleus, cause alcoholic fermentation (Plate 258). Yeast usually has little or no mycelium, and reproduces by budding. It results in production of yellowish surface froth or sediment that occurs in saccharine liquids (fruit juices) in which it promotes alcoholic fermentation, consists largely of cells of a fungus (as the saccharomyces, Saccharomyces cerevisiae), and is used in the making of alcoholic liquors and as a leaven in baking.

Zeatin: Zeatin is a cytokinin C₁₀H₁₃N₅O first isolated from the endosperm of Indian corn.

Zeaxanthin: Zeaxanthin is an isomer of lutein occurring in fruits and vegetables (spinach and corn) (Plate 260, 261 and 262).

Common name:     English – Lady’s finger
    Hindi – Bhindi
    Odia- Bhendi      
Family:     Malvaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a herb (Fig. 1 a), widely cultivated as vegetable in the tropical countries including India.

Common name: English- Indian liquorice
                           Hindi- Ratti/Gunchi 
                           Odia- Kaincha
Family : Fabaceae

Habit & Distribution
It is a common weed (Fig. 2 a) found in forest and it is also seen growing on road sides, gardens, waste places and sometimes planted in gardens.

Common name    :    English- Indian mallow
        Hindi- Kanghi 
        Odia- Pedipedica

Family    :    Malvaceae

Habit & Distribution
It is a shrub (Fig.3 a) commonly found in waste places, along road sides, as weeds in garden and in forests. It is distributed throughout India.

Common name    :    English- Red hot cat’s tail
        Odia- Bilei lanja
Family    :    Euphorbiaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant usually seen along the road sides and often grown in gardens (fig 4 a).

General Characters
It is a bushy shrub grows up to 1.8 to 3.7 meters in height. The leaves are ever green, oval, 10-23 cm long and 7.5-10 cm in width with pointed ends. Flowers are borne in attractive shades, ranging in colour from deep purple to bright red and clustered in velvety catkins, which are about 30-50 cm long. The plant flowers throughout the year.

Common name    :    English- Prickly chaff flower
        Hindi- Chirchita 
        Odia- Apamaranga
Family    :    Amaranthaceae
 
Habit & Distribution
The plant is a herb (Fig 5 a), fairly common weed that grows on waste lands and distributed throughout India.

Common name    :    English- Red Lucky Seed
        Hindi- Badi gumchi
         Odia- Manda kaincha

Family    :    Mimosaceae 

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a tree (Fig. 6a) often found in gardens and village sides and distributed in different states of India.

General Characters: 
It is a large tree with grey bark. The leaves are compound bipinnate, green when young, turning yellow when old and having 5-6 pairs of leaflets. The flowers are yellowish, small and grow in dense drooping and about 5-15 cm long. Fruits are curved, hanging, green pods that turn brown, coil up and split open as they ripen to reveal small bright red seeds. The plant flowers during March-May.

Common name    :    English- Pith plant
        Hindi- Sola
        Odia- Sola
Family    :    Fabaceae
 
Habit & Distribution
It is a herb (Fig.7a), commonly found in ponds, swampy areas, lakes and other water bodies. It is distributed throughout India.

General Characters
The plant is an erect, perennial herb. Its stem is about 2 cm in diameter. The leaves are sessile reaching up to 15 cm long, leaflets 25-50 pairs, alternate or opposite. The flowers are yellow in colour and about 8 cm long, broadly ovate and acute. The plant flowers between August and October.

Common name    :    English- Wood apple
        Hindi- Bel
        Odia- Bela
Family    :    Rutaceae

Habit & Distribution 
It is a tree, (Fig 8 a) common in scrub and open forests, also planted near temples and villages. The plant is usually distributed throughout the greater part of India.

Common name    :    English- Rain Tree
        Hindi- Gulabi Siris 
        Odia- Chakunda
Family    :    Mimosaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a tree common in dry, lowlands ,grasslands, coastal bush lands, forests and also planted in avenues. It is distributed throughout the tropical countries (Fig 9 a).