eChapters

Phytoplankton populations are important in shrimp ponds because they aid in shrimp nutrition and the removal of excess nutrients from the pond environment. They can be beneficial or have potentially negative consequences, depending on how they are managed.

    Introduction
Over 60% of the population in India is occupied in agriculture and associated fields, making it one of the world’s most agriculturally dense nations. In India, the agricultural sector accounts for 18.6% of the country’s GDP. Almost all crops, including cereals, vegetables, and cash crops, are grown in India (Vanitha et al., 2013; APEDA, 2020). From the beginning of time, several pests, including weeds, insects, plant diseases, and nematodes, have had a detrimental effect on agriculture. As a result, crop losses are estimated to be 45%, or over 290 billion, annually (Aneja et al., 2016). Regardless of tactics, illnesses and pests significantly contribute to agricultural losses. Diseases, weeds, and insects hinder plant growth and lower plant density, eventually lowering the food supply. The Entomological Society of America (ESA) has released a policy statement stating that invasive insects cost more than $2.5 billion to control and cost $18 billion per year in economic losses to pastures, crops, lawns, and forests (The Not-So-Hidden Dangers of Invasive Species, 2018). Invasive crop pests continue to threaten food security because of the intricate relationships between human migration, international trade, climate change, and evolving agricultural techniques. Several of these variables also contribute to the sharp rise of urban pests and disease-carrying insects. The primary method of insect pest management has been chemical pesticides. Nonetheless, an increasing call for less agricultural chemical use due to worries about the environment, human health, and pesticide resistance ignites interest in novel ways.
Conventional chemical pesticides have raised food production and harmed non-target animals and the ecosystem. To prevent and mitigate pest-induced crop losses in storage (post-harvest losses) and in the field (pre-harvest losses). This has been accomplished through the development of numerous crop protection techniques. In the past few decades, chemical pesticides have been utilized to reduce food losses induced by insect pests; however, this has decreased agricultural production. Moreover, volatile pesticide residues have periodically raised questions about food safety among domestic customers and presented challenges to export crops’ ability to trade. Insecticides can cause physical or biological harm to pests. Certain insecticides are applied topically or indirectly to plants those insects may consume. Pesticides harm nature, soil, and human well-being, so regulations and rules governing their use are becoming more stringent. New technology and products to control and prevent pests are desperately needed. In modern agriculture, various methods are now available, including biological control, insect behavior, genetic modification, microbial pesticides and plant immunization of pest populations.

1. Introduction

Mounting pressure of teeming population and shrinking land resources have necessitated the production of increasingly more food per unit area. Insect pests, diseases and weeds are important biotic constraints inflicting 20-25% loss in agriculture production. Synthetic pesticides have of course, played a very significant role in restricting many pest problems. However, their indiscriminate has been its toll by creating several problems like pesticide resistance in insects, contamination of food with toxic residues, resurgence of pests and deleterious effects on non target organisms. The number of effective pesticides available is dwindling day by day further having less choice among which to choose. These ill effects have arised interest in alternate methods of plant protection.

The extent to which various plant species are utilized for pest control depends, not only on their effectiveness against target pests, but also on socio-economic, environmental and policy considerations. Keep these in mind the present study on the efficacy of botanicals against Spodoptera litura was carried out.

Abstract

Electronic waste or e-waste is one of the emerging problems in developed and developing countries worldwide. The constantly changing today’s world of technology has led to the serious problem of e-waste. The previous studies show that India has generated 0.6 million tons of e-waste in 2014 which may increase to 0.7 to 0.9 million tons by 2015–2016. E-waste constitutes multiple components some of which are toxic that can cause serious health and environmental issues if not handled properly. The challenge is to develop innovative and cost-effective solutions to decontaminate polluted environments, to make them safe for human habitation and consumption, and to protect the functioning of the ecosystems which support life. Biological approach is currently applied to recovery of metals from contaminated soil, groundwater, surface water, and sediments including air.

Tissue or cell samples from a living organism, different cell cultures grown in a laboratory incubator under controlled conditions, homogenates or extracts of cells and tissues, solutions of isolated and purified components (e.g. proteins, nucleic acids) can all be referred to as biological samples. As the medium of life is water, the majority of biological samples can be defined as aqueous solutions with one or more components, colloidal systems, or water-based suspensions (e.g. bacterial cells dispersed in a liquid medium). Consequently, most biochemical experiments also take place in aqueous environments. Different solids (e.g. chemical substances obtained from different companies, synthetic oligonucleotides or peptides) are also often necessary for biochemical research. In most cases, solids are dissolved in water (or sometimes in other solvents) prior to the experiments. Therefore, the methods of preparing solutions and measuring accurately the weight of the required solids will also be discussed below. Sometimes we use gases in the laboratory. These can be stored in gas cylinders (e.g. O₂), in Dewar flasks in liquid state (e.g. liquid nitrogen), or dissolved in water (e.g. HCl or NH₃). By working with gases it is very important to follow all safety instructions to avoid fire, explosions, frostbite or (in case of inhalation) asphyxia or poisoning.

Abstract

Mine spoils pose adverse conditions for soil microbes and plant growth, due to its low organic content and other essential nutrients, unfavourable soil chemistry and poor soil texture. Poor microbial population inhibits nutrient transformation, consequently the establishment of the plants and ultimately affects the process of ecological succession. A synergy among different groups of beneficial microbes accompanied by plantation of suitable tree species on mined over area has proved to be effective for speedy and efficient revitalization of the mined affected lands. Inoculation of plantation with efficient strains of native microbes accelerates the soil redevelopment and helps to establish nutrients cycle readily which attracts native flora thereby the pace of natural regeneration is increased. It is therefore imperative to consider the application of effective microflora in restoration of mined lands along with the plantation.

Aim

To synthesize gold (Au) nanoparticle using fungal mycelium.

Introduction

Biosynthesis of nanoparticles is a kind of bottom up approach where the main reaction occurring is reduction/oxidation. The fungal enzymes are usually responsible for reduction of metal compounds into their respective nanoparticles.

The history of nanotechnology in the modern world dates back to 1959 when American physicist Richard Feynman inspired the scientific community in his lecture “There is a plenty of rooms at the bottom”. Research on nanosized particles dramatically developed into an important field of modern research with potential effects in electronics to medicine and recently in agriculture and food industry.

Nanoparticles exhibit unique properties in terms of chemical, physical, photoelectrochemical and electronic properties when compared to their respective bulk materials. The applications of these nanosized particles are defined in a bigger ways in the field of Biotechnology. All these applications require custom based synthesis methods for specific applications.

Aim

To synthesize phosphorus (P) nanoparticles from tricalcium phosphate using fungal mycelium.

Introduction

Green nanotechnology includes a range of processes that reduce or eliminate toxic substances to restore environment. Microorganisms like fungi and bacteria having naturally bestowed property of reducing and oxidizing nanoparticles, are used for synthesis.

Introduction to the Salmonid Family (Trout’s and Salmon)
The Salmonidae constitute the only extant family of ray-finned fish in the order Salmoniformes, with 11 genera and more than 200 species collectively referred to as "salmonids" or "salmonioids". This family includes all coldwater mid-level predatory fish found in subarctic and cool temperate waters in the Northern Hemisphere, such as char, graylings, freshwater whitefish, taimens, lenoks, and salmon (both Atlantic and Pacific species). In addition to being the Exclusively Distributed by NIPA GENX Electronic Resources and Solution Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi eponym of its genus, the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), has also been given the names of its family and order as well. Among teleost fish, salmonids have a relatively primitive appearance, with pelvic fins in the rear and an adipose fin at the rear. There is a single row of sharp teeth in their mouth, along with rounded scales and forked tail fins (Mc Dowell, 1998). Salmonids vary greatly in size, and the smallest reach only 13 cm (5.1 in) when adults, while the largest reaches 2 m (6 ft 7 in) (Pauly et al., 2008). Salmonids are migratory fish that spawn in the shallow gravel beds of freshwater headstreams, develop into juveniles in rivers, creeks, small lakes, and wetlands, and then migrate downstream to spend the majority of their adult lives in larger bodies of water upon reaching maturity. Often euryhaline, salmonid species migrate to the sea or brackish estuaries as soon as they reach adulthood. Just for breeding purposes, they migrate back to the upper streams. Some freshwater salmonids that migrate only between lakes and rivers are referred to as potamodromous, whereas the life cycle of these sea-run salmonids is known as anadromous. In the middle food chain, salmonids are carnivorous predators that eat smaller fish, crustaceans, aquatic insects and larvae, tadpoles, and occasionally fish eggs (even those belonging to their own species), which are then eaten by larger predators. Salmonids are regarded as keystone organisms that contribute biomass to freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems as a result of their mass migration from oceanic to inland waterbodies. Three lineages of salmonids are currently recognized, each classified as a subfamily: Coregoninae (freshwater whitefish), Thymallinae (graylings), and Salmoninae (trout, salmon, char, taimens, and lenoks). Each of the three lineages is generally accepted to belong to a monophyletic group based on derived traits (McPhail and Strouder, 1997).
Salmons and trouts are well-known for their economic importance as both sport fish and commercial products. Trout and salmon stocks are stocked worldwide each year for sport and commerce. Millions of salmon and trout are hatched, raised, and stocked every year as part of government investment programs. To meet market and restaurant demands for trout, a large private industry has developed—especially in Denmark, Japan, and the U.S. Scientists are confronted with the challenge of perpetuating and increasing the abundance of salmon and trout because of the increasing human population and industrial and agricultural demands on rivers. Among heavily populated regions, the demand for trout outstrips the supply. As a result, state and federal agencies in the United States have initiated massive programs to raise and stock trout in heavily fished waters. The artificial abundance of trout, however, is not a good substitute for the natural abundance of the fish.

Introduction
Schizothoracinae, commonly known as snow trouts, are a specialized group of fish thriving in the fast-flowing, snow-fed streams and lakes of regions such as Afghanistan, Pakistan, the Himalayas in India and Nepal, China, and parts of the former USSR. Adapted to these challenging environments, Schizothoracinae have not been extensively studied due to the difficult terrain they inhabit. In India, they are primarily found along the Himalayan range, with an exception in the Periyar, Kerela (river and lake). The Indian Schizothoracinae are classified into seven genera, forming a significant part of Exclusively Distributed by NIPA GENX Electronic Resources and Solution Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi the Himalayan fishery. Resembling Salmonidae, they are commonly referred to as "Indian Trout." Early mentions of Schizothorax species by Day (1877, 1889) were brief. Subsequent taxonomic studies by researchers such as Hora (1921, 1934, 1937, 1953), Misra (1949), and Mukerji (1936) have provided a more comprehensive understanding of their taxonomy.
The Schizothoracinae, part of the Cyprinidae family, represent a diverse group uniquely adapted to high-altitude environments and have been categorized into three groups based on their morphological characteristics: "primitive group," "specialized group," and "highly specialized group" (Cao et al., 1981). The primitive group includes Schizothorax and Aspiorhynchus, which share more traits with the outgroup Barbodes hexagonolepis. They are distinguished by the presence of uroneuralia, three or four rows of pharyngeal teeth, minimal scale degeneration, and a lack of pronounced sexual dimorphism. The specialized group includes Ptychobarbus, Gymnodiptychus, and Diptychus, and is marked by the absence of uroneuralia, one or two rows of pharyngeal teeth, and moderate scale degeneration. The highly specialized group, which comprises Gymnocypris, Oxygymnocypris, Schizophygopsis, Chuanchia, and Platypharodon, is characterized by the complete absence of barbels and scales and a well-developed canalis preoperculomandibularis (Qi et al., 2012, Yonezawa et al., 2014). The genus Schizothorax comprises 63 species in total. Among these, 34 species are mainly found in Central Asia, while 28 species inhabit the Indo-Himalayan region. The species of Schizothorax in the Himalayan region include S. curvifrons, S. nasus, S. richardsonii, O. sinuatus, S. planifrons, S. esocinus, Schizothoraichthys progastus, S. longipinnis, S. kumanonensis, O. molesworthii, S. hugelli, S. labiatus, and S. micropogon (Menon, 1999; Mishra, 2003; Zhang et al., 2018; Ma et al., 2020).

The larval phase is among the most delicate and significant periods in the development of fish and shellfish. It represents the shift from the embryonic stage to early juvenile life and greatly influences survival, growth, and the overall productivity of aquaculture ventures. During this stage, the larvae exhibit distinct morphological, physiological, and behavioral traits, which differ considerably from those of adult organisms.
Newly hatched larvae are usually microscopic and underdeveloped, depending initially on internal energy reserves like the yolk sac for nourishment. After this endogenous feeding phase, they transition to feeding on external sources such as plankton, rotifers, and Artemia. Timely access to suitable food is crucial, as any delay can result in starvation and large-scale mortality.
Fish larvae undergo rapid structural changes as they develop, including the formation of fins, a functional mouth, and a digestive system. Likewise, shrimp and crab larvae progress through multiple stages—nauplius, zoea, mysis, and post-larva—each with specific needs for food and habitat.
Physiologically, larvae have high energy demands and poorly developed respiratory systems, making them extremely sensitive to environmental factors such as oxygen, ammonia, and temperature. Their weak immune systems and fragile exteriors make them prone to disease and stress from handling.
Larval feeding is influenced by visual and environmental cues, and due to their small mouth size, they require micro-sized live feeds early on. Hatcheries must, therefore, maintain live feed cultures and gradually transition larvae to formulated diets as they grow.
Effective hatchery practices depend heavily on an understanding of larval biology. Parameters like light exposure, stocking density, water conditions, and sanitation directly impact larval development. Even minor changes in temperature

1. Giant tube worms - Riftia sp.

2. Novel mussels Bathymodiolus sp.

3. The stock inside the marine protected areas is called as Bank account.

4. Cartilaginous fishes don't have swim bladder.

5. Non- endemic species - Grass carp.

6. Banned species - Tilapia.

7. Non-parasite fish - Echinoderms.

8. Non- Penacid fishery - Maharashtra.

9. Maximum shellfish and finfish exploiting state in India is Kerala.

10. Small reservoir more in Tamil Nadu.

I. INTRODUCTION

The fruits and vegetables we eat and flowers and ornamentals we enjoy are biological entities. They breath, produce heat, perspire, are easily damaged, get diseases and finally die. These carry on processes characteristics of all living things before or after harvest to perform the metabolic activities:

1. to maintain cellular organization
2. to transport metabolites around the tissue and
3. to maintain membrane permeability.

I. INTRODUCTION
The fruits and vegetables we eat and flowers and ornamentals we enjoy are biological entities. They breath, produce heat, perspire, are easily damaged, get diseases and finally die. These carry on processes characteristics of all living things before or after harvest to perform the metabolic activities:
1. to maintain cellular organization
2. to transport metabolites around the tissue and
3. to maintain membrane permeability.
The job of postharvest technologist is to understand life in fruits, vegetables and flowers and prolong their life as much as possible. The post harvest life of produce depends on the rate at which they use up their stored food reserves and their rate of water loss. The sugar and starches (carbohydrate derivatives) are stored in various parts of plants through a process known as photosynthesis occurring in growing plants and are used later to provide energy for further growth, development and to prolong post-harvest life. The process of photosynthesis in growing plants and respiration in harvested produce can be seen in Fig. 2.1. The released energy through process known as respiration occurs in plants before and after harvest. Thus, principal normal physiological processes leading to aging are respiration and transpiration.

Except lions, the tigers like other felids are highly solitary and however, during the breeding period, the males will approach the female for mating activity. Tigers are highly territorial in nature. Like other felids, retractile claws are present in felid which is an anatomically peculiar feature. They are crepuscular in nature and however, they are quite active in the morning hours.

Life cycle of nematode has six stages. The egg stage, first stage juvenile (J₁), second stage juvenile (J₂), third stage juvenile (J₃), fourth stage juvenile (J₄) and the adult stage.

The first four stages are the immature stages and are known as juvenile stages. The female lays eggs in soil or in plant tissues, singly or in groups as egg mass that hatch out into juveniles which are almost similar to adults appearance. The first moult occurs within the egg shell and the second stage juvenile comes out by rupturing the egg shells as J₂. In case of Xiphinema index, the juveniles are reported to emerge from the egg before the first moult. The juvenile cuticle is shed after each moult.

The egg

The nematode eggs are oval in shape. The eggs are covered by three membranes, the external protein layer which is the secretion of uterus wall, the middle chitinous layer or the true shell secreted by egg itself and the inner lipid layer (vitelline layer). The chitin content in the egg shell vary in different species of nematodes.

Life cycle of nematode has six stages. The egg stage, first stage juvenile (J1), second stage juvenile (J2), third stage juvenile (J3), fourth stage juvenile (J4) and the adult stage.

Introduction

The biology is the study of life forms, subdivided into a variety of specialist categories that include their morphology, physiology, anatomy, behavior, origin, and distribution.The conservation of endangered species is often equated with the preservation of biodiversity by people all over the world. Although endangered species are among the most obvious and understandable markers of the continual loss of biodiversity, ecologists are aware that biodiversity involves much more than just endangered species. An increasingly popular and crucial component of initiatives to preserve the ecological diversity of the planet is the protection of such species.

Endangered species

Endangered (EN): A taxon that is not critically endangered but facing a very high risk of extinction in the natural environment in the near future, it is considered to be endangered.

The important criteria are

1. A decline of at least 50% over at least 10 years or three generations that has been observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected. 2. Population thought to consist of no more than 2500 mature individuals.