eChapters

4.1. Introduction

Many countries have set up a network of agrometeorological observatories to regularly record important weather parameters such as clouds, rainfall, surface temperature, humidity, wind and wind direction, solar radiation, soil moisture, temperature and humidity profile of the atmosphere, etc. The observation process is performed either manually or through Automatic Weather Stations (AWS).

This recorded information is used for weather forecasting, natural resources management and for tracking agricultural production. However, these networks, which handle data of high spatial climate variability, are typically less robust than they should be. Moreover, the agrometeorological data collected from different ground stations is not transmitted in real time to a central collection point which limits the use of information.

Satellite remote sensing technology is an alternative system that is gaining popularity in the recent times which has allowed us to obtain frequent and precise measurements of vital agrometeorological parameters such as rainfall, solar radiation, temperature, evapotranspiration, albedo etc. Satellite data has many advantages over traditional ground stations, such as high spatial resolution (50 m–5 km), wide spectral bandwidth range (0.4–3.75 um) and high temporal frequency (even half an hour) and the prospect of collecting data from remote areas. In addition to routine repeated observations, satellites often provide synoptic views of the earth’s surface from space on a wide scale and have archive of information to create baseline data.

The preparation, planning and use of agricultural technologies for agriculture, needs application of agricultural meteorology. The role of agrometeorology in the last three decades has increased in terms of increasing food and nutritional security for the burgeoning population and natural resource management particularly in the context of global climate change. Agrometeorology can help to minimize inputs, thus clarifying the contribution of ecosystems and agriculture to the carbon budget in the event of global change. Agrometeorological information needs to be disseminated to users in time and space quite accurately, as agricultural activities are linked to the very local situation where the outputs of modern tools such as local area models, climate models, and dynamic crop simulation models are reduced to finer grid resolution and combined using GIS to extract practical suggestions. This chapter describes the recent applications of remote sensing in Agrometeorology.

Plant abiotic stresses are external and nonliving factors that have harmful effects on plants. A non-living factor must exert influence on the normal range of environmental variation to adversely and significantly affect the plant performance or the physiology of the organism. Abiotic stresses are the most harmful factors affecting the growth and productivity of crops worldwide, resulting in a yield reduction ranging from 10% to 100%. They are most harmful when occurring together with other abiotic stresses and their effect in yield will only worsen with the climatic changes experienced now and expected to be more severe in the future.

Technology transfer is an important commercial tool for leveraging and optimizing the value of intangible assets in the present era of globalization which has deepen the process of integration of the economic resources including the free movement of goods, merchandise, services, capital and intellectual property rights. This economic integration is facilitated by a legal framework of World Trade Organization (WTO) under various agreements including the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). There are other International Institutions i.e., World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), World Customs Organizations (WCO) and United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) to regulate and provide guidance for the protection and enforcement of IPRs. The present global economy is geared and triggered by knowledge and almost 80 % of the global wealth comes from knowledge based intangible assets and helps optimization of the limited global resources. Technology transfer is a tool for leveraging the value of IPRs and also for sharing knowledge around the world. Knowledge is weightless and in today’s era, knowledge is driven by Information and Communication Technology (ICT) which adds to productivity in all aspects of economic life.

The term “Technology transfer” broadly connotes transfer of knowledge from one legal entity to another legal entity within and outside the national territories of the legal owner of the Patent holder at a consideration, known as license fees or technical fees or royalty. This may happen as a part of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) or as a part of pure technological collaboration. In other words, Transfer of Technology (TOT) and Technology Commercialization allows the transfer of the technology by a patent holder to a user for further development and exploitation of the technology into new products, processes, applications, material or services. Patent provides an exclusive right to the patentee to exclude others from using an invention without his consent and the technology transfer is the process to include the licensee as the legal user without infringing the rights of the patentee. The exclusive right granted to a patentee is the right to prevent others from making, using, selling, or distributing the patented invention without his permission. The technology transfer allows the user to use the patented technology with the consent of the patent holder.

INTRODUCTION

Potatois an important crop for food and nutritional security of India. Itis mainly grown as rabi crop and 90 per cent of itscultivation is confined to northern Indo-Gangetic plains comprisingthestatesof UttarPradesh, WestBengal,Bihar, Punjab and Haryana. Due to climate change, the main potato season is likely to be warmer than the rest of the seasonsof the year and will affect seriously the potato production in India. Climate change is defined by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as a plausible future climate thathas been constructedfor explicitusein investigatingthepotential consequences of climate change. It is the difference in climate over a period of time (with respect toa base line or a reference period) and corresponds to a statistically significant trend of meanclimate or itsvariability persistent over along period of time. Climate change may be due to both natural aswell asanthropogenic factors. Reference periods are typically of three decadesused as climatological baseline period in impacts and adaptation assessments to Global climate model. The future climate minus baseline climate are used for model scenario comparison of most climate variables. Typically a number of fixed time horizons in the future are produced from model output.For example 2020 (2010-2039), 2050 (2040-2069), 2080 (2070-2099). Future climates are estimated through models, called global circulation models, or global climate models (GCM). GCM simulations are carried out by means of a large set of heavy computations. The IPCC TAR reported 7 GCMs for developing climate scenarios while IPCC FAR reported 21 different GCMs.

Among angiosperms, there are about 18 families which have more than 30 genera which produce tubers. Most genera have many species which are tuberizing, most of which are unknown to man even now. The history, origin and distribution of only a few species which are economically important root and tuber crops and which are commonly used by men for edible as well as medicinal purpose are elucidated in this chapter.

1. Sweet Potato

Exact centre of origin of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), and the routes and times for its dispersal to some of its present locations, are still in dispute and are likely to remain so until further archaeological or ethnobotanical evidence is available (O’Brien, 1972).

ABSTRACT

In India agroforestry practices are ancient but the story of organized agroforestry research began in 1979 at Imphal. Considerable efforts have been expended towards promoting and implementing agroforestry practices in the country by establishing centers for agroforestry research in almost all agro-climatic zones. Though almost 30 years has passed since systematic research started however, adoption of agroforestry is still in patches. This is because of myths attached with integrating trees with crops, market condition, rules regarding timber movements, allelopathy, long duration and so on. This paper examines the various arguments for and against agroforestry practices in India and presents the opportunity and challenges in adopting agroforestry as a sustainable land use practice.

INTRODUCTION

In India the green revolution led to increase in production through enhanced productivity. Unfortunately the population growth is increasing at a rapid rate and there is an urgent need to accelerate agricultural growth to address issues on food security, nutrition adequacy, rural income generation, employment and poverty. Despite higher production, the per capita availability of food over time has not increased significantly. About 70 to 80 per cent of our people depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Contribution of agriculture to GDP is declining; this affects the rural poor most. The urban – rural divide and regional disparities are on the increase. To achieve a desirable rate of 7 per cent growth in the economy, agriculture must register a growth not less then 4 per cent. Now it is around 2 per cent and is declining (Singh, 2002). These continuous improvements in productivity are essentials but these must be capable of being maintained in perpetuity. In other words, an evergreen revolution rooted in the principles of ecology, economics, social and gender equity, energy conservation, employment generation and social auditing, is essential in major farming systems of India. Land, water and vegetation care constitute the foundation for building up such an evergreen revolution movement.

Q1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate answers.

1. India ranks …first…. position in cattle population in the world.

2. India ranks … first …. position in buffalo population in the world.

3. India ranks … first ……. position in total milk production in the world.

4. …Buffalo…….. species produce the highest amount of milk in India.

5. Frieswal cattle is a cross of …Holstein Friesian….and ……Sahiwal…

6. Mehsana buffalo is a cross of …Murrah….and ……Surti……

7. India ranks … first …. position in goat population in the world.

Agriculture is the backbone of human civilization, providing food, fiber, and livelihoods for billions of people around the world. Crop yields, which are a critical component of agricultural productivity, are influenced by a complex array of factors, including genetics, soil quality, water availability, and management practices. However, among these factors, weather and climate stand out as two of the most significant drivers of crop yields.
Weather and climate are intimately linked, with weather referring to short-term atmospheric conditions, such as temperature, precipitation, and wind, and climate describing the long-term average atmospheric conditions in a particular region. Together, they form a dynamic duo that shapes the fate of crops, influencing their growth, development, and productivity.
The impact of weather and climate on crop yields is multifaceted. Weather events, such as droughts, floods, and heat waves, can have devastating effects on crops, leading to reduced yields, lower quality produce, and even complete crop failures. Climate, on the other hand, influences the overall growing conditions, determining the suitability of a region for specific crops and the timing of planting, growth, and harvest.
Understanding the complex interplay between weather, climate, and crop yields is crucial for ensuring food security, improving agricultural productivity, and promoting sustainable farming practices. This chapter aims to explore the intricate relationships between weather, climate, and crop yields, examining the ways in which these factors interact and influence each other. By delving into the latest research and findings, this chapter will provide insights into the following key topics:
The impact of weather events, such as extreme temperatures, precipitation, and wind, on crop yields
• The influence of climate on crop growth, development, and productivity
• The role of climate change in altering weather patterns and crop yields
• Strategies for mitigating the negative impacts of weather and climate on crop yields, such as climate-smart agriculture and weather-based crop insurance

Introduction

Agriculture accounts for a large share of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), exports, and employs more than 60% of the work force in India (FAO, 2001). The failure or success of agriculture determines the economic growth of the country. As human population grows so does the demand for food and, therefore, demand for land to grow food. Ironically, the demand to convert agricultural land to commercial and residential developments is also very high due to population growth and urbanization. This is reducing the amount of land available for agricultural purpose. This scenario is being noticed in most of the developing countries like India. Against this background, agriculture will be expected to meet food, feed, and fiber demands of a world population that is anticipated to grow from approximately 6 billion in 1999 to 11 billion by 2050 (USDA, 2010). Small and fragmented land holdings do not allow farmers to have independent farm resources like draught animals, tractors, bore wells, tube wells and other sophisticated farm machineries for various cultural operations. While crop production is the primary farming enterprise in the country, livestock raising serves as an auxiliary activity to crop production. About 90% of livestock population are in the hands of the smallholders where adequate supply of high quality forage is a common problem. Integrated farming system (IFS) models developed in different parts of the country involving dairy, duckery, poultry, horticulture, apiary, pisciculture and plantation crops viz. coconut, cocoa, nutmeg, banana, pineapple etc. along with crops, have been found to increase net profit significantly as compared to cropping alone.

Water required for irrigation of cropped land is being degraded in terms of quantity and quality due to fast increasing demand for its use. Furthermore, the soil quality and crop productivity is linked to the quality of the water available for irrigation. In general, evaluation of irrigation water quality should focus on salt content, sodium concentration, the occurrence of nutrients and trace elements, alkalinity, acidity, and hardness of the water.

Healthcare artificial intelligence depends on the quality, fairness and reliability of the data used for model development. This chapter examines the characteristics of healthcare data and explains how incomplete, inconsistent or unrepresentative datasets can produce inaccurate and discriminatory clinical outcomes. It identifies sampling, demographic, measurement, historical, institutional and annotation biases and discusses strategies for mitigating them at the data, algorithm and evaluation stages. Model robustness across different populations and clinical environments is also considered. Particular attention is given to explainable AI, human oversight, continuous auditing and interdisciplinary collaboration as essential components of trustworthy, equitable and clinically dependable healthcare systems.

The alkaloids represent yet another large group of secondary plant products. Many, but not all, exhibit important pharmacological properties & some of these have been known for hundred of years. For e.g. Cinchona alkaloids, present in bark of Cinchona spp. have quinine as their main constituent, has been known since 1639 as an effective antimalarial agent.

An alkaloid contains nitrogen, frequently as a part of a heterocyclic ring, and most are as the general name implies, basic. Alkaloids are the naturally occurring basic, nitrogenous, organic, heterocyclic ring compounds mostly of plant origin with physiological and pharmacological properties. At present, the definition is much more pragmatic and includes all nitrogen containing natural products which are not otherwise classified as peptides, amines, non-protein amino acids, cyanogenic glycosides, glucosinolates, cofactors, phytohormones or primary metabolites (such as purines and pyrimidines bases). Even a number of antibiotics produced by bacteria or fungi are therefore included as alkaloids. Alkaloids evolved early in evolution and were already present (200 million years ago) when the angiosperms began to radiate. Today, more than 12,000 alkaloids are known to occur from more than 4000 species of Angiosperms. Ladenberg defined alkaloid as :

“Naturally occurring basic, complex, nitrogenous organic, heterocyclic ring compound of plant origin with physiological and pharmacological properties.”

Pulses are legumes whose grains are consumed as dal. Thus all legumes are not pulses, but all pulses are legumes. Legumes are characterized by presence of nodules in the root systems and papilionaceous form of flowers. Pigeon pea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millisp.], green gram [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczec.], black gram [Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper], cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.], horse gram[Macroyloma uniflorum [(Lam.) Verd.] and moth bean[Vigna acontilifolia (jacq.) Marechal] are the important kharif pulse crops grown in different parts of India. The common rabi pulses are chickpea(Cicer arietinum L.), lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.), pea (Pisum sativum L.), lathyrus (Lathyrus sativus L.) and frenchbean ( Phaseolus vulgaris ). All these have C₃ photosynthetic cycle. All form root nodules in association with symbiotic bacterium Rhizobium. Increase in concentration of green house gases, particularly carbon di-oxide, has led to global warming and climate change. The extreme weather events such as drought, excess moisture, untimely rain, cyclone, excess heat and hailstorm have become common. Crops respond differently to increase in CO₂ concentration. Both abiotic and biotic stresses due to global warming are likely to reduce productivity of pulses/pulse based cropping systems through adverse effects on crop growth and development. Birthalet al. (2014) reported higher decrease in grain yield of pulses(pigeonpea and chickpea) as compared to cereals (rice and wheat) due to rise in the minimum and the maximum temperature.

Introduction 
Fuels are essential to human existence and account for 70% of the world’s energy use. The demand for fossil fuels is rising daily due to the ongoing global population boom and has now reached a crisis point. The world’s current reserves cannot keep up with the projected 40% rise in demand between 2010 and 2040 [1]. According to Energy Information Administration (EIA) statistics, the world’s fossil fuel sources will run out in fewer than 50 years [2]. In addition, burning fossil fuels and living in an industrialised environment have released large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), as well as a significant number of potentially toxic compounds into the atmosphere. This has severely degraded the natural resources that are currently available, including fossil fuels. The human and natural ecology have suffered significant damages as a result of the effects of global warming in recent years [3]. As a result, cutting CO2 emissions is crucial to preventing the negative effects of global warming. Therefore, there has been a greater focus on the improvement of CO2 capture and sequestration systems to significantly lower CO2 emissions from a variety of sources, including vehicle exhaust emissions and industrial flue gas [4] . Fuel production needs to be sustainable in terms of the environment and the economy, meaning it needs to be able to reduce CO2. It is critical to find inexpensive, sustainable, and clean energy options in order to handle the current circumstances. Currently, several traditional renewable energy sources, such as solar, biofuels, hydroelectric, geothermal, or wind are being used with varying degrees of success and detriment. Biofuels are sustainable and renewable energy sources that have emerged as a superior alternative to traditional fossil fuels in energy production. Biofuels have a lot of potential because they are abundant environmentally favourable renewable resources and their production is expanding globally, even though they are still more expensive than fossil fuels [5]. Researchers are actively investigating biomasses as a means of obtaining energy from renewable sources. It is commonly known that through a process called photosynthesis, plants can transform sun energy into chemical forms. Microalgae are fast-growing microorganisms that develop 100 times quicker than terrestrial plants. Their photosynthetic efficiency is also higher (10–50 times greater than terrestrial plants) among biomasses [6]. In less than a day, they can double their biomass. Unicellular microalgae, in contrast to plants, do not divide substantial amounts of biomass into supporting structures like stems or roots, which are costly to create energetically and frequently challenging for harvesting and processing to produce biofuel. Furthermore, they have the ability to adapt to harsh aquatic environments and economically absorb helpful substances. Moreover, 1 kg of microalgae biomass is produced by microalgae cells that fix 1.8 kg of CO2 and have a 50% carbon content [7]. Microalgae can be grown on terrain that is inappropriate for food production because of their high total yield and hence small land use footprint [8]. Microalgal species including Scenedemus sp., Chlorella sp., and Botryococcus sp.; are common, easier to grow than other species and may have higher lipid contents [9].

Abstract

Water has become a scarce resource all over the World. Water resources of Earth can be classified as surface water and groundwater in which groundwater is the main source for the drinking, domestic and agriculture. The Pudukkottai district is one of the chronic drought prone areas in Tamil Nadu. But, at the same time, the district is pitted with over 5,400 tanks/water bodies widely distributed throughout in general and clustered more in Vellar delta in particular, as the interlobel depressions have provided basic depressions for the surface water to accumulate. However, these surface water bodies are heavily silted. In Pudukkottai district, there are three divergent aquifer systems, hard rock aquifer system in the western, sedimentary aquifer system constituted by the Tertiary Sandstone (Cuddalore Sandstone) in the central and Quaternary aquifer system constituted by fluvial, fluvio-marine and marine systems in the eastern parts of the district.

2.1 Introduction

Cabbage is consumed in the raw state as well as in cooked. The word cabbage has been derived from the French word Cobache, meaning head which is best described as single large terminal bud comprised of tightly overlapped numerous leaves attached to an unbranched short stem. It is known for its rich source of vitamin A and C. It is an effective curative against scurvy disease. Cabbage leaves are low in calories (24 %), fat (0.2 %) and carbohydrates (5.4 %). It is a good source of protein (1.3 %). Cabbage is an excellent source of minerals such as calcium, iron, magnesium, sodium, potassium and phosphorus. It contains good amount of ascorbic acid. Cabbage is used mainly as a vegetable and nice pickle (sauerkraut) is prepared from it. It is also used as salads. Cabbage is well known for its medicinal properties. 

Introduction 
India’s urban transition is among the most significant in the world, both in scale and complexity. With over 34% of the population residing in urban areas as of 2018 and projections indicating that nearly half the nation will be urban by 2047, the quality of urban governance will decisively shape India’s developmental trajectory (United Nations, 2018). Urban areas are expected to contribute over 70% of the GDP by 2030. However, cities face multifaceted governance challenges ranging from infrastructure deficits and environmental stress to inadequate service delivery and institutional fragmentation (NITI Aayog, 2021). In response, digital urban governance has emerged as a transformative paradigm, leveraging information and communication technologies (ICTs) to enable responsive, efficient, and inclusive urban administration. Digital technologies are increasingly embedded into urban governance structures and processes, from e-governance portals and grievance redressal apps to real-time traffic monitoring systems and digital financial tools. This shift is reflected in flagship national programmes such as Digital India, Smart Cities Mission, and the National Urban Digital Mission (NUDM), which aim to digitise public service delivery, enhance citizen engagement, and enable data-driven decision-making at scale (Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs [MoHUA], 2021; MeitY, 2015). At the heart of this transformation is the creation of robust digital infrastructure such as Integrated Command and Control Centres (ICCCs), city data platforms, and open APIs combined with evolving institutional frameworks that promote interoperability, decentralisation, and cooperative federalism (Kapur & Joshi, 2021; NIUA, 2023). The chapter explores the evolution and current landscape of digital urban governance in India by first outlining the conceptual underpinnings of urban governance and then transitioning into the digital domain. It analyses the role of urban digital infrastructure and the institutional architecture that supports it, highlighting the coordinated efforts under NUDM to build an open, interoperable, and citizen-centric digital ecosystem across India’s 4,400+ towns and cities (MoHUA & MeitY, 2021). Complementing this are the

Abstract

Oolichan (Thaleichthys pacificus), a small anadromous smelt also known as “savior fish”, were a necessity of life for Pacific Northwest Coastal and adjacent interior indigenous peoples, as they were the first fish to return to the rivers after winter and produced not only tasty flesh but also a nutritious oil, or “grease.” A focus of the traditional oolichan culture is the Nass River of northwestern British Columbia, Canada. The valleys and mountains surrounding the Nass River are the traditional homelands of the Nisga’a people, whose technological innovations including implements, buildings, and landscape structures facilitated fishing, production, and preservation of oolichan, as well as salmon. Over thousands of years, the Nisga’a developed plant-based technologies for use in the oolichan fishery and for preparation trade of rendered oolichan “grease”. In turn, structures and implements associated with the oolichan fishery facilitated knowledge exchange across generations, since the oolichan processing areas and fishing camps were the places where elders conveyed their cultural and ecological knowledge to younger people. Structures fashioned from plants helped people to recall the stories, traditions,

Pulses are important ingredients of human diet and principal source of protein of high biological value particularly for vegetarians. These are excellent feed for animals endowed with an unique ability of biological nitrogen fixation, carbon sequestration, soil amelioration, capable to sustain under harsh climate and an integral component of sustainable crop production system. It is expected that by the year 2050 world human population will climb to 9.7 billion, India 1.6 billion and that of Odisha will be more than 5.75 crores. It will be a great challenge by agricultural scientists for assured food security of billions of hungry human mouth with nourishing food especially pulses, oilseeds and other dietary ingredients. Current production of pulses are not sufficient to meet the requirement. In Odisha it is expected to have a shortage of 1.7 lakh tones of pulses towards 2030 if the current rate of production will not increase. The fact is almost similar for nation although India contributes 24 per cent of global pulse production but imports about 2.0 million tones every year. The deficit will further mount as the per capita consumption on dal of an Indian is increasing. It necessitates to increase pulse production which is not happening keeping pace with need (Jena et al., 2015).