eChapters

Irrigation is one facet of the inputs which need to be carefully managed so that profits are maximized. Irrigation plays a major role in any agriculture crop production. One should be aware of different types of irrigation adapted in orchards or crop cultivation to become a successful grower. Irrigation is very important component of crop cultivation as sufficient moisture must be maintained in the soil for obtaining the optimum growth and good quality yield. The aim of irrigating a plant should be to wet the entire root zone without allowing any wastage of water beyond the root zone. The irrigation systems have to be properly devised so that the water requirements of the trees are met at the minimum expenditure without any wastage of water. Irrigation practices can be improved if a range of important factors like crop type, crop water requirements, climatic conditions, soil type, water quality, method of irrigation are taken into account.

Crop type

The type of horticultural crops grown influences irrigation practices. Annual vegetable and melon crops have high water requirement, hence irrigation management is extremely critical to their productivity during their relatively short life span (10-20 weeks). Perennial fruit crops tend to require less water and management, although critical, is not generally as critical as for annual crops.

The high density planting (HDP) in fruit crops is one of the new concepts of increasing the productivity without affecting the quality of fruits. The concept of high density planting was pioneered in temperate fruits in Europe at the end of 1960, since then there is rise in establishment of commercial high density orchards throughout the world. Initially HDP was followed mostly in temperate fruits e.g., apple. HDP is defined as a method of planting wherein more numbers of plants are planted per unit area as compared to conventional planting density or it is a modern method of fruit cultivation involving planting of fruit trees densely, allowing small or dwarf trees with modified canopy for better light interception and distribution and ease of mechanised field operations. It is one of the important methods to achieve high productivity per unit area both in short duration and perennial fruit crops.

Now-a-days, new orchards of fruits are planted in this system with a view to produce higher fruit yield and increased profitably. In addition, there is also a need to feed the growing population and provide them nutritional security and land resources are shrinking simultaneously due to the industrialization, urbanization etc., hence it is required to develop the modern facilities to compete with the developed nation. The success of this technology in most of the fruit crops is dependent on the use of methods to control shoot growth so as to maximize light interception. The main aim of HDP is to obtain the twin prerequisites of productivity by maintaining a balance between vegetative and reproductive growth without sacrificing plant health and fruit quality.

The fruit trees are grown for optimum production of quality fruits that fulfill our requirement. Therefore, proper care and management of trees is mandatory to manipulate plant growth and plant environment. Training and pruning are important operations that provide not only the proper framework to the tree but also the favourable environment leading to desired plant growth and reduction in disease and pest attack.

Training

It is a physical manipulation technique that provides proper shape, size and direction to the plant in initial stage of growth. The techniques like tying, fastening, staking, supporting over a trellis or pergola in a certain fashion or pruning of some parts are are followed.

Objectives

• To improve physical appearance and usefulness of plant by providing appropriate shape and size to the plant and maintaining proper root-shoot balance.
• To facilitate easy cultural operations including canopy management, inter-cropping, plant protection and harvesting.
• To develop strong scaffold branches with better crotch angles in all directions that are capable of bearing heavy crops over the years without breakage of limbs.
• To provide adequate sunlight and air to the centre of the tree.

Layout of an orchard

Layout means the way by which something is arranged or laid out. The purpose of designing a layout for an rchard is to assign the actual position for trees/ plantations, roads, water channels, buildings etc. The layout should be planned very carefully and implemented properly to facilitate proper care and maintenance of an orchard. The plan should provide optimum number of trees per unit area as well as sufficient space to each of the tree for proper development and ease in various cultural operations of the orchard.

Materials required for layout

Measuring tape, rope, pegs, poles and planting board.

Based on agro-climatic conditions, the following system of planting are generally followed for planting of fruit trees:

1. Square
2. Rectangular

Plant Propagation is a technique through which multiplication or production of new individuals take place from selected propagules. The methods of propagation are broadly divided in two categories:

1. Sexual method
2. Asexual method

1. Sexual method of Propagation

In this method, plants are produced from seeds and such plants are called seedlings. Seed is considered as a dormant plant which develops into a complete plant if subjected to congenial environment.

Advantages

1. This is very simple, cheap and easy method of propagation.
2. Some species of fruits, ornamental annuals and vegetables which cannot be propagated by asexual means should be propagated by this method. e.g. papaya, marigold, tomato etc.
3. Hybrid seeds can be developed by this method.

A nursery is a place, where seedling, saplings, trees, shrubs, and other plant materials are grown and maintained until they are placed in a permanent place.

Advantages of Nursery

1. The area being small and compact, it is convenient and easy to grow large number of seedlings per unit area.
2. Management of favourable growing conditions becomes easy and feasible.
3. Easy management of pests and diseases in compact area.
4. Establishment of disease free and virus free scion bank.
5. Ensure optimum utilization of labour, water, nutrients and other inputs.
6. Ensure easy and cheap availability of plants.
7. Promotion of export through supply and processing of quality plant materials.

A seed (in some plants, referred to as a kernel) is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant. The formation of the seed completes the process of reproduction in seed plants (started with the development of flowers and pollination), with the embryo developed from the zygote and the seed coat from the integuments of the ovule. In broad sense, seed is a material which is used for planting or regeneration purpose. Seed technological point of view, seed may be sexually produced matured ovule consisting of an intact embryo, endosperm and or cotyledon with protective covering (seed coat). It also refers to propagating materials of healthy seedlings, tuber, bulbs, rhizome, roots, cuttings, sets, slips, all types of grafts and vegetatively propagating materials used for production purpose. Quality seed, therefore, can be defined as the seed which fulfills the minimum requirements of getentic and physical purity, seed germination and vigour freedom from weeds and other crop seeds and other relevant seed standards.

HORTICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

The Horticultural crops are majorly classified on the basis of its consumption and uses as fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, medicinal, aromatic and plantation crops. Moreover, these crops have been further classified into various groups on the basis of their habitat, growth pattern, edapho-climatic requirements and uses. All branches of horticulture classified specifically as hereunder:

A Classification of fruits

1. Based on Climatic adaptability
   1. Tropical fruits: These fruit crops are grown in tropical climatic regions which are geographically located between the parallels of 23° 27' South (Tropic of Capricorn) and 23° 27' North (Tropic of the Cancer) of the equator. They are generally evergreen and very sensitive to cold. Eg. Mango, Pineapple, Banana, Papaya, Citrus, Sapota, Avocado etc.
   2. Sub-tropical fruits: Fruit crops are grown in between temperate and tropical climatic regions. They may be either deciduous or evergreen nature. Eg. Mango, guava, citrus, durian, jackfruit, bread fruit etc.

Horticulture has emerged as one of the potential agricultural enterprises in accelerating the growth of economy in India. It offers not only a wide range of options to the farmers for crop diversification, but also provides ample scope for sustaining large number of agro-industries which generate huge employment opportunities. Horticulture has been evolving in form of horticulture industry in our country owing to its significant role in nutritional security, poverty alleviation and employment generation. The production of fruits, vegetables and flowers has acquired much importance in recent times due to their increasing demand. India has a wide variety of climate and soil on which different horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, ornamentals, medicinal and aromatic plants, plantation crops and spices are cultivated successfully.

German Prof. Peter Laurenberg conceived first the word horticulture. The term “Horticulture” is known in written form first in seventeenth century in a book entitled “New World of Words” by Phillips.

Etymologically the word “Horticulture” is derived from two Latin words viz. ‘Hortus’ [garden or enclosure] and ‘Cultura’ [cultivation]. So, literally horticulture means ‘garden or enclosure culture’ or ‘cultivation of garden crops within protected enclosures’.

Garden: Garden is a broad term derived from the Latin word Gyrdan meaning “to enclose”.

DIVISIONS AND DEFINITION OF HORTICULTURE

Pomology: (pomum = fruits, logy = science) It is a branch of horticulture which deals with study or cultivation of fruit crops starting from raising of saplings and intercultural to harvesting operations. The ‘pomology’ term is derived from latin word pomum (means fruits) and greek word logy (means science).

1. Genus - Pythium (Type species - Pythium aphanidermatum)

‘Pythium’ is a large genus comprising of more than 200 species. Species of Pythium are either terrestrial or aquatic. They are found world wide and most of them are plant pathogens on many economically important cultivated crops, as well as wild plants. They are facultative saprophytes and can live saprophytically in the soil and plant debris for indefinite periods in the absence of suitable hosts. Pre-emergence and post-emergence damping off of seedlings of numerous angiospermic plants, root rot, rhizome rot and fruit rot are the most common diseases caused by species of Pythium.

Pythium debaryanum, Pythium aphanidermatum, Pythium myriotylum, Pythium indicum, Pythium vexans and Pythium graminicolum are some of the most important plant pathogens, that cause damping off, seed decay, soft rots and root rots of many economically important crops, such as chillies, eggplant, tobacco, tomato, castor, potato, ginger etc.

Life cycle of Pythium

The mycelium of the fungi consists of slender, hyaline, coenocytic hyphae. The hyphae grow both inter- and intra-cellularly. No haustoria are produced.

1. Ginger (Zingiber officinale)

‘Ginger’, which originated in Southeast Asia has a long history that goes back over 5000 years when the Indians and Ancient Chinese considered it as a tonic root for all ailments. At an early date it was exported to Ancient Rome from India and was used extensively by the Romans. Subsequently it was cultivated in several other countries for its medicinal value. Ginger is cultivated in most of the states of India. Kerala and Meghalaya are the major ginger growing states. India’s production of ginger constitutes about 50 per cent of the total world’s production.

Ginger is an erect, herbaceous , perennial, flowering plant, the rhizome of which is used as a spice. Ginger is an ancient spice and is a common ingredient in many Asian foods and is used in soups, curries, noodles, stews etc. It is widely used to flavor beverages, such as tea, coffee, lemonades, cocktails etc. In many places across the world ginger is used in sweets, alcoholic beverages, such as ginger beer and wine. Ginger has powerful anti-inflammatory properties. Further it has many other health related benefits, such as ability to help with arthritis, osteoarthritis, relieves nausea and pain, prevents cancer, improves respiratory conditions and reduces flatulence. It also boosts bone health, strengthens the immune system and increases appetite.

A ‘spice’ is a seed, fruit, root, bark, bulb, corm, rhizome or any other part of a plant primarily used for enhancing the taste, flavor or color of food. Some spices serve as preservative of food substances. Many spices have antimicrobial properties. Spices are sometimes used in medicines, religious rituals, cosmetics, perfumes etc. Spices are more commonly used in countries having warmer climates, especially in meat preparations. Many spices have substantial antioxidant property due to the presence of phenol compounds, particularly flavanoids.

India is the major producer of spices and contributes about 75 per cent of world’s spice production. Developing and under developed countries of the world supply about 55 per cent of spices to the global markets and the major markets in global spice trade are the United States of America, The European Union, Japan, Singapore, Saudi Arabia and Malaysia.

Objectives

1. To identify the morphological character of different spices and condiments.
2. To know the best variety of particular crop in that region.
3. To know the problems which are the main drawback of that region in the cultivation of spices and condiments.
4. To know the feedback of farmers.

General information of Institute

1. Name of Institute:
2. Address of the Institute:
3. Establishment year of the institute:
4. Director of the Institute:
5. Total area of the Institute:
6. Climatic condition of Institute:

Objectives

1. To know about value addition and its benefits.
2. To know the value added products of various spices and condiments.

Value addition: The maximum realization of the price of the product through processing, packaging and marketing.

Benefits of value added products over raw spices

1. Easy to carry
2. Long lasting flavours
3. More volume can be handled / per unit area
4. Easy to store, free from bacterial contamination.
5. Increases foreign exchange as they are used in food industry, preservatives and pharmaceutical industry.

Objectives

1. To know the methods of essential oil extraction of spices and condiments.
2. To know the various chemicals present in the essential oil of different spices and condiments.

Essential oil: Essential oils are the liquids that are isolated from plants when introduced to solvents. They are liquefied versions of the plants.

Extraction methods of essential oil

1. Steam Distillation
2. Solvent Extraction
   1. CO₂ Extraction
   2. Maceration
   3. Enfleurage
3. Water Distillation
4. Water and Steam Distillation

Objectives

1. To know the various steps involved in the processing of various spices and condiments.
2. To know the grade of some spices and condiments.

Processing: Perform a series of mechanical or chemical operations on (something) in order to change or preserve it.

Processing of some spices and condiments are given below

1. Black pepper

Processing involves the following steps:

1. The fresh berries are dipped in hot water for a minute which results in an attractive black colour and also reduces the drying time.
2. The berries are separated from the spikes and dried in the sun for 7-10 days.
3. When dried, the berries retain the characteristic wrinkled appearance of black pepper of commerce.

Objectives

1. To study the maturity indices of various spices and condiments.
2. To study the harvesting time and yield of various spices and condiments.

Maturity: A stage of attainment of final state of biological function beyond which growth and development ceases.

Maturity indices: An indication of appropriate stage of harvesting of the produce.

Harvesting: It is deliberate action to separate the plant product from its source of attachment.

Why harvesting at right stage for spices and condiments?

1. To avoid loss of flavour and volatile oils
2. Reduction in yield due to shattering
3. To get the higher yield
4. Recovery of more essential oil
5. Chances of attack of mycotoxigenic and storage pest

Objectives

1. To study the objectives and principles of training and pruning.
2. To study the methods of training and pruning.

Training: It refers to judicious removal of part to develop a proper shape of plant capable of bearing heavy crop load.

Objectives of Training

1. To admit more light and air to the centre of the tree to expose maximum leaf surface to the sun
2. To direct the growth of the tree so that various cultural operations such as spraying, ploughing, harvesting can be performed easily and at lower cost.
3. To protect the tree from sun burn and wind damage.
4. To secure a balanced distribution of fruit bearing parts of the tree.

Objectives

1. To study the weeds and its control.
2. To study the herbicides, their types, timing and methods of application.

Weed: A wild plant growing where it is not wanted and in competition with cultivated plants.

Or

Weed is such undesirable plant grown in association with crop which snatches major parts of nutrients, water, light, place and CO₂ available to the crop.

Due to tough competition crop suffers adversely and the production is reduced.

Objective

1. To know the different types of fertilizer application methods applied in spices and condiments.

Methods of fertilizer application: The different methods of fertilizer application are as follows:

a) Broadcasting

1. It refers to spreading fertilizers uniformly all over the field.
2. Suitable for crops with dense stand, the plant roots permeate the whole volume of the soil, large doses of fertilizers are applied and insoluble phosphatic fertilizers such as rock phosphate are used.

Broadcasting of fertilizers is of two types

1. Broadcasting at sowing or planting (Basal application): The main objectives of broadcasting the fertilizers at sowing time are to uniformly distribute the fertilizer over the entire field and to mix it with soil.

Objective

To know about the production practices used in spices and condiments.

1. Mulching: Mulch is a layer of material applied to the surface of soil.

Benefits of Mulching

1. Conservation of soil moisture
2. Improving fertility and health of the soil
3. Reducing weed growth
4. Enhancing the visual appeal of the area

Types of Mulching

1. Organic mulching: Organic mulches include bark nuggets, grass clippings, straw or salt marsh hay, compost and chopped leaves.
2. Inorganic mulching: Inorganic mulches include gravel, polythene and landscape fabric

Objectives

1. To know the layout methods.
2. To know the planting techniques of various spices and condiments.

Layout: Systematic arrangements of plants

Some spices and condiments just like clove, cardamom is perennial in nature. Being perennial in nature any mistake committed during initial year, on the part of planning, is hard to rectify. Hence, all the factors having bearing on growth, production and overall performance of the plant should be given top priority.

Systems of planting

1. Square system: In this system row to row distance and plant to plant distance is kept similar.

Objectives

1. To know about the seed treatment of spices and condiments.
2. To know the sowing method and time of spices and condiments.

Seed treatments or seed dressing: Seed treatment refers to the application of fungicide, insecticide, or a combination of both, to seeds so as to disinfect and disinfect them from seed-borne or soil-borne pathogenic organisms and storage insects. It also refers to the subjecting of seeds to solar energy exposure, immersion in conditioned water, etc. The seed treatment is done to achieve the following benefits.

Advantages of seed treatment

1. Protects germinating seeds and seedlings against soil and seed borne pathogens/insects.
2. Seed germination enhancement.
3. Early and uniform establishment and growth
4. Enhances nodulation in legume crop.
5. Better than soil and foliar application.
6. Uniform crop stand, even in adverse conditions (less/high moisture)

Objectives

1. To know the propagation and its methods.
2. To know the propagation methods of various spices and condiments.

Propagation of plants

The process of increasing plant numbers is called propagation

Or

Multiplication of plants is known as propagation

Plants are propagated either by

1. Sexual (Seed) or
2. Asexual (vegetative) methods.

Objective

1. To know the morphology of different spices and condiments.

Materials: The crop of spices and condiments available at Horticulture research farm

Method of observation: Identification of various spices and condiments plants by carefully observing the root, stem, leaves, inflorescence, flower, fruit and seeds of the plants.

General

1. Habitat: A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of plant. The term typically refers to the zone in which the plant lives and where it can find food, shelter, protection and mates for reproduction It is the natural home of a plant. Each habitat has its own particular type of climate like:
   1. Tropical Spices: These are grown at 1800 m - 3500 m height from ground level eg. clove, nutmeg, cinnamon, konkam, galangal, small cardamom, vanilla, black pepper, ginger, turmeric.
   2. Subtropical Spices: These are grown at 300 m - 900 m height from ground level eg. cumin, dill, fennel, coriander, fenugreek, onion, garlic
   3. Temperate Spices: These are grown at 900 m - 1800 m height from ground level eg. saffron, asafetida, caraway seed, celery seed, savoy, caper, balm, origanum, calamus, thyme etc.

Objective

To study the salient features of important varieties of spices and condiments.

1. Cardamom

Table 3.1: Released/Recommended Cardamom Selections- Estimated Yield and Source of Variability.

2. Black pepper

Table 3.2: Improved varieties of black pepper and their character

Objectives

1. To know the botanical and other names of spices and condiments.
2. To identify the family, plant habit and plant part used of spices and condiments.

Objective

1. To classify the various spices and condiments.

Types of classification: spices and condiments are classified on the following basis:

1. Classification on the basis of economic importance
2. Classification on the basis of parts used
3. Classification on the basis of climatic requirements
4. Classification on the basis of life cycle
5. Classification on the basis of taxonomy
6. Botanical classification

Objectives of book keeping

How much have we earned this year?

How much during the past year?

Is our business improving?

Also, how much cash do we have?

How much our customers owe us?

Popularly the term management is used to refer to the group of managerial personnel of an enterprise. But the use of the term management in this sense is not correct, because the managerial personnel of an enterprise are usually designated as ‘managers’, ‘executives’ or administrators. Strictly speaking the term management refers to functional concept of management.

The entrepreneur as a person brings in overall change through, innovationfor the maximum social good. Human values remain sacred and inspire him to serve society. He has firm belief in social betterment and he carries out this responsibility with conviction. In this process, he accelerates personal, economic as well as human- development.

Goods and services are created through process of production. After production they have to be transferred or moved from the original producers to the final consumers. This involves the creation of market and the undertaking of number of activities such as buying, assembling, transportation warehousing, risk bearing, financing, selling etc. This constitutes the subject matter of marketing. Hence there is the need for the study of market.

Animal husbandry is the most important economic activity in rural areas as livestock plays a vital role in the economy. Over 90 per cent of the milk production comes from small farmers, who are located in rural areas. Growing human population, increasing urbanisation, rising domestic incomes and changing lifestyles in the country have led to increasing demand for dairy products (Anita and John, 2001).

Economics

The term “Economics” is derived from the Greek words ‘OIKOS’ and ‘NOMAS’ or ‘NEMEIN’. ‘Oikos’ means house hold and Nomas or Nemein means management. So in its original sense economics means house hold management; i.e. satisfying as many wants of the house hold or family as possible by allocating the limited resources at the disposal of the family wisely among different wants.

Technical Term                                 Definition

Geographical Information System

Base Map                                          Basic representation of a region of the earth as it would appear if viewed from above. That is a map containing geographic

                                                          features that is used for reference. Roads, for example, are commonly found on base maps

Technical Term              Definition

Land Use Capability     Capability is the inherent capacity of land to perform given at a level for a general use

Technical Term                    Definition

Canal Irrigation System      The system in which irrigation water is supplied through irrigation canals network (main canal, submain canal, distributaries, and

                                            minors) from source of water (reservoirs) to point of application (agricultural lands)

Technical Term           Definition

Fluid Mechanics         Fluid Mechanics is a study of physical behavior of fluids and fluid systems, and laws governing their behavior. It incorporates action of forces

                                   on fluids and the resulting flow pattern

Technical Term                            Definition

Geomorphological Analysis       Geomorphological analysis is the systematic description of watershedís geometry and its stream channel system to measure

                                                   the liner aspects of drainage network, aerial aspects of drainage basin and relief aspects of channel network.

Technical Term          Definition

Soil                             Soil is the superficial unconsolidated and usually weathered part of the mantle of a planet and especially of the earth

Technical Term      Definition

Drainage               Removal and disposal of excess water from agricultural lands is referred as drainage.

Technical Term       Definition

Groundwater         Water present in the zone of saturation (below water table) is called groundwater

Technical Term            Definition

Infiltration                    Infiltration is movement of water from the surface into the soil or ground.

Technical Term                        Definition

Hydrology                               Hydrology is the science of water derived from Greek wordî hydro + logosî i.e., water + sciences and hance defined as the science which deals with occurrence, distribution and circulation of atmospheric water through unending Hydrologic cycle.

Overview of Soil Erosion Conservation Measures

Technical Term           Definition

Soil erosion                Transportation & deposition of soil particles from one place to other after detachment from soil mass.

Agriculture is the lifeline of India that provides livelihood to about 70 per cent of its population dwelling in about 6 lakh villages. In spite of so many projects, programmes and schemes launched from time to time after independence by Government of India through Ministry of Agriculture and Indian Council of Agricultural Research, State Agricultural Universities and Departments of Agriculture, agricultural food grains production was not realized on ìsustainable basisî. Even ìGreen Revolutionî which came to fore during 1967-68 in the irrigated areas alone, could not sustain the productivity of rice and wheat. Rather, the productivity of these crops has either got declined in many cases and/or in other cases it has stagnated.

It is an established fact that there is no further scope for horizontal expansion of area under plough, as the per capita land is decreasing every year due to unabated increase in human population. Hence, the future need of food has to be met through vertical expansion i.e. more intensification of agriculture. Nearly 40 million tonnes of nutrients in the form of chemical fertilizers will have to be utilized to feed upon an estimated population of 1.5 billion by 2050 AD (Sakai, 2001). However, presently the crop productivity especially rice and wheat has stagnated not only in India but in other South Asian countries also (Mahajan and Gupta, 2009). 

North Eastern Himalayan Region comprises mostly of seven states viz. Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura (Gill, 2005). This Himalayan Region stands entirely different from the rest of the country not only in language, dress, food habits and festivals but also differs in agricultural practices. Among agricultural practices shifting cultivation locally known as ìJhumî or ìBunî is the most important. According to Ministry of Agriculture, Arunachal Pradesh stands first in the ìJhumî cultivation followed by Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya (Agnihotri, 2003). In Meghalaya, the problem has assumed an epidemic proportion in Gargo hills where tracts of forests are burnt. The farmers of Khasi and Jainta Hills usually practise the ìBunî cultivation.