eChapters

• Spray Angle — The angle subtended at the final orifice by the edges of the spray pattern.
• Variation in discharge rate between first and last observation shall not be more than 5 percent.
• The volumetric efficiency requirement for roller vane type pump shall be minimum 80 percent.
• The volumetric efficiency of piston, plunger type pump shall be minimum 80 percent.
• If the droplet size is reduced from 2 mm to 1 mm, number of droplets produced will increase by 8 times from the same volume.

This chapter “Research Methodology” deals with methods and procedures followed in conducting the study. The chapter contains three parts. The first part deals with the sampling technique and the second part covers the empirical measures of different variables and last part describes details of data collection and statistical measures used in the study.

8.1. Ecological Soundness

Conservation of natural resources essentially means maintenance and improvement of ecological status and not permitting them for further degradation. The natural resources are soil, water, forest, mountain and animal resources. An attempt was made to find out whether the respondents adopt certain recommendations for preservation of these natural resources irrespective of source of advice.

i. Soil Health

Soil is considered as an important ingredient of ecological soundness of an area. Adoption of soil health measures, like adding of organic manures, following of crop rotations, use of balanced chemical fertilizers, green manure and bio- fertilizers are some of the recommendations to maintain soil health. While examining the adoption of these measures, the following results were obtained.

Introduction

Accuracy and uncertainty analysis is an important step in preparation of surface map through geostatistical techniques or digital soil mapping approach. It is because that we rely on a map based on how much accurate it is and the degree of uncertainty associated with the estimates while the map was prepared. Any stakeholder for a soil map especially policy makers is interested in accuracy and uncertainty of the map before taking suitable land management decisions involving soil map as an input. Again the level of accuracy and uncertainty depends on the properties for which the map has been developed. If the property of interest is sensitive to environment or human consumption, then the accuracy level should be very high while the uncertainty level should be very low e.g. heavy metal concentration in soil, quality parameters of water etc.

Introduction

Soil is one of the vital resource, and is the basis of the existence of mankind. Management of this resource including its conservation and utilization is of crucial importance. It is a base on which all life depends. In the recent past, with burgeoning populations and the national goals of seeking self-sufficiency in food and fibre production, this resource base is slowly being stripped. While natural systems often adapt to stress in a remarkable fashion, some relationships - once destroyed - can never be restored. Soil resources can be assessed and monitored through its spectral signatures gathered through remote sensing.

The term ‘remote sensing’ is commonly restricted to methods that employ electromagnetic energy (such as lights, heat, micro wave) as means of detecting and measuring target characteristics. Sensors acquire data as various earth surface features reflect or e mit electromagnetic energy (EM energy). Remote sensing is the technology that is now the principal method (tool) by which the earth’s surface and atmosphere (as targets or objects of surveillance) are being observed, measured, and interpreted from vantage points. Remote sensing of the earth traditionally has used reflected energy in the visible and infrared, and emitted energy in the thermal infrared and microwave regions to gather radiation that can be analyzed numerically or used to generate images whose tonal variations represent different intensities of photons associated with a range of wavelengths that are received at the sensor.

Introduction

Over the past few decades, soil resources have witnessed many changes driven by demographic pressure and climate change. It is necessary to have up to date soil information to monitor the state of soils health with time. Soil resource inventory provides information about the potentialities and limitation of soils for its proper utilization. Soil survey offers an accurate and scientific inventory of different soils, their properties and extent. An in-depth knowledge of the type of soils and their spatial distribution is a prerequisite for developing rational land use planning. Remote sensing is the science of obtaining information about the earth’s surface without actually being in contact with it. On the other hand, proximal sensing refers to remotely sensed measurements that are taken at the field or laboratory level. Both these processes involve an interaction between incident radiation and the targets of interest. Fundamentally, remote sensing data products are a representation of the functional response of objects to energy sources. These are typically spectra, which are acquired as a discrete series of reflectance measurements taken at different wavelength intervals, or bands. In the shorter wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum (visible part), features can be detected by virtue of reflected solar energy, while in the longer wavelengths (microwave, thermal parts), sensing of emitted energy works. Conventional soil sampling, and subsequent laboratory analysis are generally time consuming and costly. In this context, remote sensing plays a crucial role for studying soil resources. The term remote sensing is generally used for airborne and space borne acquisitions, whereas proximal sensing refers to ground-based laboratory and field measurements. Advances in the quantitative disciplines like remote sensing and proximal sensing have laid the foundations for a spatial exploration of soil-system dynamics within a landscape context (Pennock and Veldkamp 2006).

Introduction

Soil is a dynamic natural body, characterized by high degree of spatial variability due to combined effect of physical, chemical or biological processes that operate with different intensities at different scales (Goovaerts 1998). Reports have shown that there is large variability in soil properties, crop yield, disease, weed etc., not only in large-sized fields (Godwin and Miller 2003,Vrindts et al. 2005), but also in small-sized fields (Bhattacharya et al. 2008). Therefore, knowledge of hydro-physical properties of soils is crucial for management practices for all kinds of agricultural practices for efficient utilization of input resources. Plant growth and development is highly related to soil hydro-physical properties, which not only depend on soil intrinsic textural and chemical characteristics (Hamza and Anderson 2005) but also on soil management.

Soil physical properties which change with the variation in soil structure include bulk density, total porosity, pore geometry (size distribution, shape, continuity and tortuosity), penetration resistance and aggregate stability, consequently affecting soil hydraulic properties such as water retention characteristics, plant available water capacity, infiltration capacity and saturated hydraulic conductivity. These soil properties are dependent on seasonal climatic conditions, management practices, crop development and biological activity (Reynolds et al. 2007). The hydro-physical properties of soils, i.e., water retention and water permeability in both saturated and unsaturated zones not only shape soil water balance but also decide the conditions for plant growth, development and yield. They also determine water availability for the plant root system and the transfer of water with chemical compounds dissolved in it into deeper layers.

Introduction

The life support systems of a country and socioeconomic development of its people largely depend on soils. The soils are the most valuable natural resources for the society. It caters the basic needs of mankind by producing food, fibre and timber. It is therefore essential to know the distribution and extent of different soils and their qualities, potentialities and constraints for sustainable utilization of this valuable natural resource (Shyampura and Sehgal 1995). Information on distribution, potential and constraints of major forest soils are essential to design most appropriate soil management systems in order to increase productivity of forests as forests also offer excellent potential for poverty reduction and rural economic growth in India. However, unlike agriculture lands forest soils usually draw less attention and are ignored in spite of the fact that they nourish the lungs of the Earth. Soil quality is the most important factor in forest management decisions. Soils will determine productivity of a particular forest and management strategy. Knowing about forest soils can serve as a basis for forest management decisions, including land acquisition, species selection for planting, site preparation requirements, watershed development, fertilization prescriptions, stand density/ composition, and harvest timing, as well as decisions affecting land ownership and use.

Introduction

High degree of spatial variability in soil properties is observed at different scales. This variability is generally originated from the combined effect of physical, chemical or biological processes operating with different intensities at different scales (Goovaerts 1998). Knowledge of this spatial variationof soil properties is important in several land management applications e.g. variable rate application of nutrient and water in agricultural production system, land suitability classifications, modeling water balance components at landscape scales, precision farming etc. The concept of ‘management zone’ was also evolved in response to this large variability with the main purpose in efficient utilization of agricultural inputs with respect to spatial variation of soils and its properties (Franzluebbers et al. 1996, Atherton et al. 1999, Malhi et al. 2001). Therefore, an appropriate understanding of spatial variation of soil properties is essential. The most important way to gather knowledge in this aspect is to prepare soil maps through spatial interpolation of point-based measurements of soil properties. Here, a case study is discussed where soil water retention at two critical levels e.g. field capacity (FC) and permanent wilting point (PWP) was spatially characterized through geostatistical approaches. Because these two soil moisture contents guide farmers to apply right amount of irrigation water at right time. The study was carried out at the experimental farm of ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India (28°37′-28°39′ N, 77°8′ 30″-77°10′30″ E, 217-241 m above mean sea level). A detailed discussion of the study is available in Santra et al. (2008)

Introduction

Globally, the SOC pool of 1,550 Pg (1 Pg = 1015 g) to 1-m depth is about three times that of biotic and twice that of atmospheric pools (Post et al. 1982, Watson et al. 2000). In arid and semi-arid ecosystems, SOC contents show high degree of spatial variability due to patchiness of vegetation (Wiesmeier et al. 2009). The arid ecosystem might play a key role in mitigation of climate change effects through sequestering carbon in soils (United Nations 2011). Therefore, a suitable land use system having high C sequestration potential for arid ecosystem needs to be identified and promoted. However, the prevailing conditions of arid ecosystems normally does not support dense vegetation. Therefore, low carbon stock is expected in both above-ground vegetation and below-ground soil. Fruit trees are an integral part of arid farming system and played a significant role to improve the nutritional security and employment opportunity of farmers but also have potential role to increase carbon storage both in biomass and soil. To quickly assess the soil carbon restoration programmes, it is important to know how much soil carbon is stored in an agricultural farm through adoption of different land management practices. Therefore, reliable estimates of SOC pools are essential to establish the soil carbon sequestration programmes at different landscape scales.

Since ancient times, agriculture is an outdoor or open field production of crops. Open field production is climate and weather dependent. In fact, growth and development of crops under a particular set of climate parameters defines geographical location, productivity and production period of different crops. The magnitude of impact of climate and weather on agricultural productivity and quality of produce is appreciated by farmers and the scientific community, including horticulturists. Abiotic and biotic factors govern crop production potential and quality of products. Among the major constraints in production of horticultural crops are temperature (hot or cold), sunlight duration and quality, water deficiencies or excesses, atmospheric moisture (relative humidity), weeds, deficiency of nutrients, heavy winds, carbon dioxide and host of diseases and insect pests. There are ecological optima for obtaining production potential of each of the crops. Deviation from these conditions results in yield losses partially and sometimes totally. However, near optimal climatic conditions could be created by controlling the climate with the help of greenhouse using

The article is the Inaugural address delivered by Dr. R.S. Paroda at Indian Society for Protected Cultivation (ISPC-registered in March 2012), New Delhi on 21 March 2013 in a seminar ‘‘Advances on Protected Cultivation’’ at NASC, Complex, Pusa, New Delhi different protected structures/methods/devices and such cultivation under controlled environmental conditions is termed as as protected cultivation.

Greenhouse refers to a structure which provide relatively better environment for plant growth. The goal is to create congenial temperature and relative humidity in desired range. The greenhouse covered with polythene sheet, also called as polyhouse, has polythene sheet (UV stabilized 200 micron LDPE sheet) as covering over a relatively rigid frame (made of GI pipes, angle iron, boomboo or wooden) which entraps the solar energy to increase the temperature and provide light for plant propagation. A normal greenhouse has four basic components: 1) frame made from rigid material like GI pipes, wood or bamboo; 2) glazing material, which is transparent to provide enough light for plant propagation; 3) climate control system, which may be natural ventilation or forced ventilation using fans with or without cooling pads, shading nets, pigment painting, etc. and 4) plant growing medium (soil or artificial media like cocopeats) with needful arrangement for supplying inputs (water, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.). The design of greenhouse involves structural design of frame with enough climate control mechanism. It mainly depends on shape, size, material of frame, local climatic conditions, wind pressure, and desired height from crop production point of view. Fabrication of greenhouse should be such that it provides enough structural stability with wind pressure and other factors, perfect joints, anchoring of polythene, and minimum hindrances in crop production practices.

Tomato varieties produced 50% in plastic house cover more than what they produce in open air (Diez et al., 1985). Nevertheless this production increase is not, by itself the reason for the use of protected cultivation which requires higher expenses. The key factor is the cost increase of final product obtained during off-season, which created an interesting margin in spite of high production costs. The effect of cost of seed in total cost is negligible, which permitted the use of hybrid seed. The new hybrids have brought about production increases which can be calculated to be over 50% more than what the greenhouse varieties produced with the cost of hybrid seed giving an effect on total production costs of only 6-7%. So that under these circumstances, production increase associated with hybrids is certainly very advantageous, apart form other benefits to be derived from hybrids.

Kerala has a tropical humid weather characterised by high rainfall and humidity. The intense rainfall during June-September is a limiting factor for vegetable cultivation. High cost of labour, rapid urbanisation, small size of holdings and quality conscious consumers are some of the factors favouring protected cultivation in Kerala. Rain shelters and modified naturally-ventilated polyhouses are recommended structures for protected cultivation of vegetables. The important vegetables grown are cucumber, yard long bean, Capsicum, okra, tomato, cabbage, cauliflower and leafy vegetables. The conventional saw-toothed structure has been modified to suit Kerala weather by making variation in height and improving the roof and side ventilation so that temperature variation inside the structure is only 1°C compared to the ambient. The Kerala Agricultural University has also developed an ad-hoc package for protected cultivation of vegetables, considering the soil and weather parameters and is providing necessary technical support to growers and extension officers. The technology for large-scale production of virus-free vegetable transplants in pro-trays has also been standardized. There is a growing demand for quality, disease-free seedlings and technology can be scaled up into a profitable agri-entreprenurial model. Open field precision farming through fertigation and mulching is profitable compared to conventional system of cultivation. Besides maximising water-and nutrient-use efficiency of the crop, this technology offers scope for mechanisation in vegetable cultivation saving human labour requirement by almost 50%. Rain shelters are useful for year-round production of vegetables in homestead for small growers.

Green energy can be classified as any form of energy resource that results in zero greenhouse gas emissions and zero toxic byproducts. These constitute the alternate source of energy such as Solar, Bio, Hydrogen, Wind, Water etc. Renewable Energy is energy that is not depleted or expen- ded. Previously the pressure to reduce CO2 emissions dictated the energy sourcing. With recent findings from experimental evidence, global warming may not be attributable to CO₂ emissions in relation to other over-weighing causes. However the pressures to develop renewable sources continue since the cost of Oil is increasing in many countries. It is desirable and a necessity to develop renewable non-toxic energy resources. The global economy and welfare of all earth depends on it even if CO₂ is not the cause of global warming (GW). There are some factors not in the control of even the most technologically advanced society. These are solar activity such as sun spots which have huge and tremendous influence on the Earth’s climate. However we should strive not to cause any undue imbalances in the proportion matter and composition of Earth’s atmosphere. Although CO2 is a small contributor to GW in comparison to H₂O, we still have responsibility to maintain the right balance of the gases in the atmosphere by not causing undue changes to the Carbon, Nitrogen and Oxygen cycles! We are far way off from a Oil-free technology. Most transportation is still petrol driven.

Symbolic to its nomenclature, ’PULSE’ (P = people, U = umbrella, L = livestock, S = soil and E = energy) is a superb group of agricultural crops extending an energy umbrella to people (as a major source of dietary protein), livestock (as a green nutritious fodder and feed) and soil (as a builder and restorer of soil fertility through biological N₂ fixation). On account of these qualities, pulses have occupied a unique position in the Indian farming system. Crop diversification with greater inclusion of legumes is essential to alleviate declining factor productivity, input use efficiency and increasing cost of cultivation for realizing sustainable use of natural resources. Pulses are increasingly becoming a component of the intensive cropping systems as intercrop, substitute crop or catch crop. In upland situations, pulses play an important role as intercrops and ensure more income and efficient use of resources. While analyzing the reasons of low productivity of pulses in various parts of the country, it is observed that non availability of high yielding disease resistant varieties, cultivation on marginal and sub-marginal lands under deficit moisture and fertility and poor pest management are the major constraints in realizing optimum yield potential.

Lentil is one of the most nutritious cool season food legume and ranks next only to chickpea. It is grown throughout the northern and central India for grains, which are used as dal (wholeor dehulled) andin various otherculinarypreparations. Lentil contains about 25% protein, 0.7% fat, 2.1% mineral, 0.7% fibre and 59% carbohydrate. It is a rich source of phosphorus and carotene. It is generally grown as rainfed crop during rabi season after rice, maize, pearl millet orkharif fallow. It is also grown as intercrop with barley, linseed, mustard and autumn planted sugarcane. In North-eastern parts of the country, lentil is also cultivated as paira crop with rice in which seeds of lentil are broadcast in the standing crop of rice 7-10 days before its harvest. It is grown on a wide range of soils from light loamysand to heavy clay soil in northern parts and moderately deep black soils in central India.

To set up a soil-testing laboratory the minimum requirements are as follows:

8.1 Laboratory floor area

Minimum four rooms are needed. They are as follows:

1. Office room, floor size: 18’x 12’

This room is used for registration of the soil samples received, recording recommendations along with soil test results in laboratory book and in report sheet, their dispatch, accounts etc.

Introduction

In view of the accepted importance of analysis, the workload on soil, plant and water testing laboratories has increased considerably in recent years. Therefore, analytical methods have needed to be accelerated through the automation of instruments. Almost all instruments either contain inbuilt computers or can interface directly with micro processors, thereby simplifying instrument operation and providing versatility for the analyst. Most operations can be performed through keyboard commands. This type of instrument automation enables:

ABSTRACT

Shivaliks are highly fragile ecosystem of Himalayas threatened by problems like soil erosion, loss of tree cover, decreased productivity of fuel, fodder and food, to name a few. These problems are further being complicated due to ever increasing anthropogenic pressure. Maintenance and enhancement of soil fertility is not only vital for food security and environmental sustainability in the Shivalik hills, but all over the globe. Agroforestry is frequently proposed as a solution to problems of land and water degradation as well as an answer to shortages of food, fodder and fuel in the Shivaliks, and the same holds true for Jammu Shivaliks. Substantial environmental benefits accrue from planting trees. Suitable tree crop combinations as well as their management practices need to be worked out. Growing of trees and grasses in agroforestry systems such as agrihorticulture, silvipastoral, agrisilvipastoral are specially suited for Shivalik hills keeping in view their role in soil and water conservation. Additional agroforestry component i.e, animals can further hasten the ameliorative effect of agroforestry. In all, combination of trees, crops and/or animals on the same unit of land holds great potential for contributing to sustainable land use system which can help in conserving soil and water besides providing innumerable socio-economic benefits.

ABSTRACT

Survey and research trial conducted for the selection of promising tree based farming system in Paonta valley region of H.P. have been summarized in the manuscript. Tree based farming innovations with intercropping, their planting technology and geometry around field/ farm, pure plantation , block plantation of trees grown with agricultural/fruit crops for better productivity per unit of land have been suggested for improving socio-economic condition of the regional farmers.

ABSTRACT

The paper discusses the problems of soil and water erosion in the Shivalik foot hills and suggests strategies for improved land use planning and the role bamboo species can play in mitigating the problems. The paper also discusses the various bamboo species of the Shivalik foothills, their regeneration, planting practices, management and utilization pattern in detail.

Soil is defined as the thin layer of earth’s crust made up of disintegrated and decomposed rocks, complex mineral compound, organic matter, water/air and living organism like bacteria, fungi, insects and worms and serves as the natural medium of growth of plants.

• It provides nutrients, moisture, anchorage (support) and provides air to root system.
• There are different soil groups found in varied regions of India.
• Each group differs from other in physical and chemical properties.
• The variation in behaviour is mainly due to the nature of the parent material from which the soils are formed.
• Parent materials are Igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.
• Physical properties like structure, texture, colour, water holding capacity, depth etc. are to be noted. Chemical properties like the presence of various plant elements, pH, EC, CEC, acidic or alkaline, etc. are considered.

Harvesting: “Removal of entire plant or economic parts after maturity from the field" is called harvesting. It includes the operation of cutting, picking, plucking or digging or a combination of these for removing the useful part or economic part from the plants / crops. The portion of the stem that is left in the field after harvest is called as stubble. The economic product may be grain, seed, leaf, root or entire plant.

Harvest Index: (H.I): It is the ratio of the economic yield to the total biological yield expressed as percentage.

H.I = Economic yield / Biological yield x 100

Time of Harvesting: If the crop is harvested early, the produce contains high moisture and more immature ill filled and shriveled grains. High moisture leads to pest attack and reduction in germination percentage and impairs the grain quality.

Late harvesting results in shattering of grains, germination even before harvesting during rainy season and breakage during processing.

India shares 17.4% of the world population, while its land is only 2.4% of the total geographical area of the world. Naturally, the pressure on the land is often beyond its carrying capacity. Therefore, the productive lands, especially the farmlands in India are in the constant process of various degrees of degradation and are fast turning into wastelands. At present, approximately 63.85 million hectare area of the land is lying as wastelands in India (NRSA, 2005). Out of these lands, about 50% lands are such non-forest lands, which can be made fertile again if treated properly. In the last 50 years India’s lush green village forests and woodlots have been deforested to the maximum. To restore this ecological imbalance by developing the degraded non-forest wastelands, Government of India had created the Department of Wasteland Development during July, 1992 under the Ministry of Rural Development, which has been subsequently reorganized and renamed Department of Land Resources, with a broader mandate.

National Wasteland Development Board was established in 1985 mainly to tackle the problem of degradation of lands, restoration of ecology and to meet the growing demands of fuelwood and fodder at the national level. The Board was reconstituted in August, 1992 and was made responsible for development of wastelands mainly in non- forest areas in totality by involving local people at every stage of development. It aims at creating a scenario where the Government acts as a facilitator and the people at the grass root level become the real executioner of the programme. The degradation of environment in the fragile Indian subtropical ecosystem is basically attributed to the following factors.

The main objective of any cropping system is to utilize available resources efficiently viz., land, water, solar radiation by maintaining stability in production in order to obtain higher net returns. The efficiency is measured by the quantity of produce obtained per unit resource used in a given time. The objective of traditional agriculture was to increase the production by two means

1. By increasing area under cultivation
2. By increasing the productivity per unit area of the crop

But two more dimensions are added to modern agriculture

1. To increase the production per unit time
2. To increase the production per unit space

In the traditional cropping systems, mixtures and rotations were developed by the farmers over years of experience by trial and error to suit specific ecological and sociological conditions to attain yield stability, whereas modern scientific cropping has three pillars viz.

Biointensive IPM incorporates ecological and economic factors into agricultural system design and decision making while addressing public concerns about environmental quality and food safety. It provides suitable guidelines and options for the effective management of pests and beneficial organisms in an ecological context in a holistic self-sustaining manner. The flexibility and environmental compatibility of the Biointensive IPM strategy make it useful in all types of cropping systems particularly in an agro-biodiversity rich ecosystem.

Introduction

Banana (Musa sp; family: Musaceae) is the second most important fruit crop in India next to mango. Its year round availability, affordability, varietal range, taste, nutritive and medicinal value makes it the favorite fruit among all classes of people. It has also good export potential. Banana evolved in the humid tropical regions of South East Asia with India as one of its center of origin. Modern edible varieties have evolved from the two species – Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana and their natural hybrids, originally found in the rain forests of S.E. Asia. During the seventh century AD its cultivation spread to Egypt and Africa. Banana and plantains are grown in about 120 countries. Total annual world production is estimated at 86 million tonnes of fruits. India leads the world in banana production with an annual output of about 14.2 million tonnes. Other leading producers are Brazil, Eucador, China, Phillipines, Indonesia, Costarica, Mexico, Thailand and Colombia. In India banana ranks first in production and third in area among fruit crops. It accounts for 13% of the total area and 33% of the production of fruits. Production is highest in Maharashtra (3924.1 thousand tones) followed by Tamil Nadu (3543.8 thousand tonnes). Within India, Maharashtra has the highest productivity of 65.70 metric tones /ha. against national average of 30.5 tonnes/ha. The other major banana producing states are Karnataka, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Assam.

Introduction

Medicinal plants are known to Indian traditional healers since time immemorial. The plants were collected from the wild and were used in many preparations of wellness products. India is endowed with diverse group of medicinal plants accounting for more than 8000 species which are being used in more than 10,000 herbal products. Ninety percent of herbal industry’s requirement of raw materials is meted out from the natural ecosystem-forests-resulting in ruthless exploitation and destruction of its natural habitats (Mathivanan et al., 2016). Medicinal plants are cultivated or found in the wild throughout the country and are used for various purposes including traditional herbal remedy (infusion, tincture and decoction) and extraction of phytochemicals for homoeopathic and ayurvedic drugs, cosmetics, neutraceuticals/dietary supplements, functional foods and aroma therapy oils (Nagpal et al., 2004). The large scale cultivation of medicinal plants may face the problem of sudden appearance of large populations of insect pests in a single crop. Like other plants, medicinal plants too have to bear the devastating effects of injurious insect-pests, which are not only harmful for the plant but also, deteriorate the quality of the produce, thus hampering its medicinal value.This chapter discusses major insect-pest and their eco-friendly measures in medicinal plants so that a package of practices can be recommended for an easy adoption even by small and marginal farmers and gardeners in India.

Introduction

From avian species alone approximately 20 mycoplasma serotypes have been isolated and characterised. Out of them, three serotypes (M. gallisepticum, M. meleagridis and M. synoviae) are most typical and pathogenic. A serotype M. iowae causes low hatchability in turkeys. Mycoplasmas are bacteria that lack cell wall and belong to the class Mollicutes. Although they have been considered extracellular agents, scientists admit nowadays that some of them are obligatory intracellular microorganisms, whereas all other mycoplasmas are considered facultative intracellular organisms

The disease is worldwide in distribution and remains the major parasitic problem in the poultry industry. The problems occur principally in poultry maintained on deep litter.

Etiology

Coccidiosis of all classes of poultry is caused by one or more of the many species of coccidia of Eimeria species. In chickens nine main species are encountered. Eimeria tenella, E. necatrix, E. maxima, E. acervulina, E. mitis, E. mivati, E. hagani, E. brunetti and E. preacox.

Introduction

Progress in plant biotechnological research has opened many avenues for basic and applied research in the field of crop plants. Plant tissue culture is an important component of biotechnology that involves in the improvement of crops. Besides this, plant tissue culture provides a good system for many basic studies in plant breeding, plant physiology, genetics and cell biology. Further, manipulation of cells through the modern technique of genetic engineering may lead to an introduction of new gene(s) to a host plant and the techniques of genetic engineering rely on plant tissue culture techniques. The regeneration of plants through plant tissue culture and their subsequent acclimatization and delivery to the field possesses many problems to make tissue culture technology a viable alternative proposition. The successful development of encapsulation technique for preparation of plant propagules in a nutrient gel has initiated a new line of research on artificial seeds. Application of this technology has been well recognized in several agronomically important crops and forest trees. Artificial seeds make a promising technique for propagation of transgenic plants, non-seeds producing plants, polyploids with elite traits and plant lines with problems in seed propagation.

To mimic the natural seeds, the embryos from cultures are encapsulated in a nutrient gel containing essential organic/inorganic salts, carbon sources, plant hormones and antimicrobial agents and coated completely to protect the embryos from mechanical damage during handling and to allow the development and germination without any undesirable variation. When looking at the history of synthetic seed technology, a wide number of encapsulating agents have been tested in time for their capacity to produce beads like, potassium alginate, sodium alginate, carregeenan, agar, agarose, guargum, polyox, gelrite, sodium pectate, carboxymethyl cellulose, nitrocellulose, ethylocellulose, polyethyleneamine (Kersulec et al., 1993), chitosane (Tay et al., 1993), tracanth gum etc. have been tested as hydrogels (Table 3.1), out of which alginate emasculation was found to be more suitable and practical for synthetic seed production. Some plants exudates of arabic (Acacia senegal), karaya (Stereculsia sp.), or seed gums of gaur (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba), tamarind (Tamarindus indica) or microbial products like dextran, xantham are also being used for encapsulation.

In this chapter we will look at the Expert system which can guide and assist an individual once it is provided with the enough Knowledge to do so. Here we will discuss about expert system and its architecture with proper steps of making an expert system in any field by several tools which are available to do so. For expert systems the most important is Knowledge Engineering which is the collection of Knowledge from an expert and Engineering it in such a form that a machine could understand it.

Introduction

One of the pioneering fields of AI study is Expert Systems (ES). It is proposed by researchers in the computer science department of Stanford University. An expert system is a computer system which emulates a human expert’s decision-making skills. Expert systems are developed by reasoning through information structures, representing laws, rather than through traditional procedural code, in order to overcome complex problems.

Expert Programs use professional expertise systematically to address human expert problems. An expert is an individual with experience in a specific field. The expert has expertise or special credentials which most people do not learn or care about. An expert can solve or solve problems more effectively than people can solve. Expert System actually emulates all these qualities of expert and solve the problem in a better way and fast.

Today, Expert System (ES) is used in the fields of finance, research, engineering, technology, medicine and many others where there is a well-defined problem area. The fundamental principle is that an expert method should also define the steps to illustrate why a problem can be solved. Unless an individual can justify his reasoning for Expert System.

The estimation of digestibility by feeding trials with sheep or other ruminants is laborious and requires large quantities of feed. Therefore, the chemical composition of feedstuffs are used to predict digestibility by making use of established mathematical relationship between digestibility and composition. However, since the relationship between digestibility and chemical composition varies with the type of feedstuffs, for each group of feedstuffs, mathematical equations will have to be developed by relating chemical composition with in vivo digestibility. In spite of this, the errors associated with this approach of predicting digestibility is large. This has led to the development of techniques that would mimic digestive function of the ruminant in the laboratory.

In vitro methods of feed evaluation using rumen fluid and/or digestive enzymes are the most widely used techniques in ruminant feed evaluation.Although,the technique adopted in different laboratories differ, the principle of the technique is essentially a partially simulated rumen environment in vitro by incubating rumen fluid anaerobically in buffered medium at 39°C for variable period of time. Currently the most commonly used rumen in vitro techniques are,

Now we have to learn how to enter numbers and text, how to edit any erroneous entry and then how to do simple calculations. Open empty excel spread sheet by clicking on the start menu in the window tool bars, click on Programs and then click on the Excel menu item.

6.1 Entering Numbers

Numeric entries are constant, can be integers, decimal fractions, integer fractions and scientific nations which can be entered by typing the number in the active cell [cell which can be made active by clicking the mouse on the cell.

Wilt

Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lentis

Economic Importance

• The disease is present in countries such as India, Jordan, Nepal, Pakistan, Syria, Turkey, Russia, France, Hungary, Ukraine, Egypt, Ethiopia, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia, Canada, Argentina, Chile and Uruguay etc.
• It may cause 5-10% yield losses but sometimes severe damage may result complete crop failure under favorable conditions.

An electron impringing on a solid surface may be scattered once, several times, or never. When an incident electron beam bombard atoms of the sample, secondary electrons (SEs) and backscattered electrons (BSEs) emerge from the sample surface. Multiple scatterings occur if the dimension of the material is greater than approximately twice the mean free path of the electrons. This scattering may be elastic or inelastic. A pear shaped volume (interaction volume) is formed as shown in Fig. 1 and this volume of excitation increases with increase in the beam voltage (electron energy) and decreases with the increasing specimen density (ion atomic number).

Information on the avifauna of an area is a prerequisite to assess the status of birds and the habitat quality with specific attention to indicator species including the rare, endangered and endemic species. Birds are one of the best indicators of the health of an ecosystem. They are highly mobile and easily observed indicators of change in the environment (Holmes et al., 1986). Many wetland species also play a role in the control of agricultural pests, while some species are themselves considered pest of certain crops. After fish, birds are probably the most important faunal group that attract people to wetlands. Loss of wetland habitats through direct and indirect modifications and non-sustainable harvesting of water birds for human needs have led to decline in several water bird populations and a number of species (Jin-Han Im et al., 2001).

Some of the most catastrophic declines of birds have taken place in the last few decades and the list of threatened species in the Asia- Pacific region has expanded rapidly to include species from a large range of water bird groups. While decline of some populations has been well documented, the fates of many others remain unknown. It is vital to understand the underlying causes in population changes and to attempt to control these trends in order to prevent key component of biodiversity of wetland habitat from being lost. The number of water birds using a particular habitat is related to types and quality of habitats, abundance and availability of food and level of disturbance. Monitoring of water birds can thus provide valuable information on the status of wetlands and can be a key tool for increasing the awareness of importance of wetland and conservation values. In this chapter, the status, occurrence and species composition of avifauna recorded from Kole wetlands are elucidated.

Tropical forest bird community

Species richness at Silent Valley and Mukkali were similar. Most of the birds at Silent Valley were sighted with in a distance of 4m during the census. At Mukkali this distance was up to 9m. Yellowbrowed Bulbul was the most common and dominant species found at Silent Valley. Most common species found at Mukkali was Black Drongo and dominant species was Jungle Babbler. A total of hundred and thirty-seven species of birds were recorded from the study area. There is no significant difference in bird species richness between years during monsoon and summer seasons at Silent Valley. But a significant difference in species richness is obtained between years in both seasons, at Mukkali.

Four endemic and threatened species of birds were recorded from the study area. This shows the conservation value of the study area. Total number of birds sighted in each month showed significant difference at Silent Valley and Mukkali. This is due to the movement of birds influenced by the climatic and other parameters. Overall density of birds was high at Silent Valley (1122 birds/km²) and low at Mukkali (780 birds/km² ). This indicates the ability of tropical evergreen forest to harbour more birds than tropical moist deciduous forest. The number of individuals/km² recorded is comparable to other tropical forests in the world and from this observation we can also conclude that the study area is supporting a rich bird community.

Coastal areas are defined as the interface or transition areas between land and sea, including large inland lakes. Coastal areas are diverse in function and form, dynamic and do not lend themselves well to definition by strict spatial boundaries.

Economic importance of coastal areas

Many of the world’s major cities are located in coastal areas, and a large portion of economic activities are concentrated in these cities. The coastal zone is an area of convergence of activities in urban centres, such as shipping in major ports, and wastes generated from domestic sources and by major industrial facilities. Many of the world’s most productive agricultural areas are located in river deltas and coastal plains, which contribute for national economic growth.

Life on Earth is dependent on microorganisms for many essential services. Microbes are intimate partners in global agriculture by way of mobilization of nutrients, antagonism against pathogens and exploitation of plant- microbe interactions and optimization of plant microbiome allows farmers to apply less chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and improving plant growth and yield for sustainable development.

India has 2.4% of land area of world and 8.1% global species diversity. India has 7500 km long coast line in nine states and three union territories. About 14% of Indian population (17 crores) lives in coastal area. In 10.78 million ha of coastal ecosystem, rice is the major coastal crop. Coastal rice accounts for 15% of total area and production of India. Coconut, cashew, areca nut, spices, plantation and fruit crops are the other important coastal crops. The east coast in four states (Tamil nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal) and one union territory (Pondicherry) has sandy coast and plains with medium to high rainfall (100-250 cm), and hot humid climate. It has marshy lands and mangroves. The west coast in five states (Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra, Gujarat) and two union territories (Diu and Daman, Dadar and Nagarhaeli) has fertile sandy plains with high rainfall (250-300 cm) and hot humid climate suitable for horticulture and plantation crops. Western Ghats near west coast is a hot spot with high biodiversity. ICAR established the Central Coastal Agriculture Research Institute (CCARI) at Goa in 2015 to carry out research on coastal agricultural crops.

Soil salinity in coastal regions is not only a soil type character, but also due to low quality irrigation water. The plant associated microorganisms “Plant microbiome” play a significant role in conferring resistance to soil salinity. The endophytic bacteria- rhizobium, rhizobacteria- azospirillum, azotobacter, phosphobacteria, PGPR bacteria, cyanobacteria, symbiotic fungi- ecto and endo mycorrhiza, alleviate the impact of soil salinity. Minimal microbiome for plants is the key determinant of plant health and productivity. The plant- microbe interactions are of three types: (i) Positive: Beneficial organisms- nitrogen fixers, phosphobacteria, mycorrhiza; (ii) Negative: Harmful organisms - plant pathogens; (iii) Neutral: Transient organisms. Millions of microbes inhabit plants, form complex ecological communities to improve plant growth, crop quality and productivity.

Email can be a wonderful tool for delivering feedback to students. Once a basic understanding of feedback’s role in learning has been established, one can begin to focus on how best to take advantage of the pedagogical functions of the com- munication medium. There is little doubt that email is changing how we commu- nicate and learn. For example, in an investigation of the effectiveness of email as a communication and instructional aid between instructors and students, Yu and Yu (2002) found “empirical evidence supporting the usefulness of e-mail as a prom- ising aid to promote student cognitive growth pertaining to computer knowledge and skills”.

Tao and Boulware (2002) suggest that email communication benefits teachers by “identif[ing] instructional focus and tak[ing] advantage of instructional moments to fit the developmental needs of their students in authentic situations”. They also find that email motivates learners, encourages authentic communication and cre- ates new learning opportunities.

Introduction

Global fisheries produced roughly 171 million tons of fish, with an estimated sale value of US$ 362 billion, generating over US$143 billion in exports in 2016. Around 60 million people across the world are employed in fisheries and aquaculture, with the majority in the small scale capture fisheries sector of developing countries (FAO, 2018). India has an annual harvestable potential of 4.414 mt. and with 9.9 lakh active fishers, the sector provides livelihood to nearly 4.0 million people including the post-harvest sector (Sathiananthan, 2017). The estimated value of marine fish at landing centre level was Rs. 48,381 crores and at retail level was Rs. 73,289 crores during 2016 (CMFRI, 2017). Seafood exports from the country reached 1.38 million tons valued at $7.1 billion in 2017-18 (MPEDA, 2018). The fishing fleet of the country includes 1, 94,190 fishing units consisting of 72,559 (37.31%) mechanized, 71,313 (36.67%) motorized and 50,618 (26.03%) artisanal craft (CMFRI, 2010). The mechanised sector contributed 82% of catch followed by motorised (17%) and non-mechanised (1%) sectors in 2016 (CMFRI, 2017).

The development of marine fisheries sector in India occurred in three phases. In the first phase (up to 1965-66) fishing was mainly done by using non-mechanized indigenous craft and gear. The second phase (up to 1985-86) witnessed increased mechanization, improved gear materials and introduction of motorized country craft. In the last phase (after 1986) there was intensification of mechanization, motorization of the country craft and multi-day voyage fishing (Sathianandan, 2013).

The craft and gear technologies in marine fisheries sector vary based on the types of fish caught and nature of fishing ground. The economics of different production technologies in the mechanised, motorised and non-mechanised categories were analysed based on the size of boats and capacities of engines and gear. The economic indicators developed in different coastal states helps for micro level investment decisions as well as for developing macroeconomic policies for the fisheries sector.

Introduction

The better quality of life for the Indians who in majority depend on agricultural would be impossible by keeping the rich tradition of Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) aside (Das, et al., 2002). According to Farrington and Martin (1988), ITK is based on knowledge, beliefs and customs which are internally consistent and logical to those holding them but at odds with the objectively deduced findings of formal science”. Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) is the knowledge that the indigenous and local community accumulates over generations of living in local environment. It encompasses all forms of knowledge, experience, technologies, know-how, skills, beliefs and practices. These are also termed as “indigenous knowledge”, “people’s knowledge” “traditional knowledge” or “local knowledge” and are limited within a community. It is unique to a given culture, location or society.

Fishermen all over the world use some kind of traditional knowledge. ITK provides valuable insight into sustainable aquaculture, because it passes through considerable adaptation, up gradation and modification over a period of time and carried on from one generation to another as a family technology. Naturally, ITK fits well to a particular environment rather than modern technological knowledge. This knowledge has been developed outside the formal education system and refers to the large body of knowledge and skills which includes variety of fish culture practices, when and where to catch, how to process fish with a cost effective methods, and how to maintain their environment in a state of equilibrium. ITK is collective in nature and is often considered the property of the entire community, and does not belong to any single individual within the community.

Introduction

The Food Security is one of the most important dimensions of livelihood security of household (Rahman and Akter, 2010), because all efforts of the family members are directed towards fulfilling the family need including food. Food security defined as “access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life”. Food security includes at a minimum: (1) the ready availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods, and (2) an assured ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways (Anderson, 1990). It is also an indicator of sustainability of any vocation be it fish, crop, livestock production or combination of it. In case of Tripura very little study has been made in this aspect. Therefore, in this paper it is attempted to assess the status of food security of fish farmers of Tripura, using Index of Food Consumption (IFC) and Clustering Technique.

Data and Methodology

This study was undertaken in Tripura state and study area comprises 6 Rural Development Blocks viz. Bishalgarh, Melagarh and Mohanpur of West Tripura district; Hrishyamuk, Rajanagar and Matabari of South Tripura District. From these blocks a sample of 105 fish farmers was selected using stratified sampling method for gathering the primary data. The pretested, semi structured survey schedule was administered to collect the data during 2010.

Introduction

Aquaculture, the farming of aquatic organisms, has been the agro industrial activity with the highest growth rate worldwide in the last four decades. From 1970 to 2008 the production of aquaculture organisms grew at a rate of 8.3% per year, compared to less than 2% of fisheries, and 2.9% of livestock (Luchini et al. 2008). In India, aquaculture feed market was valued at USD 1.20 billion in 2017 and is expected to register a CAGR of 10.4% during the forecast period (2018-2023). Indian feed mills have the capacity to produce 2.88 million metric ton. Andhra Pradesh is the largest feed consuming state in India (Anon. 2017). The growth in production has been faster for fed species than for non fed species indicating that adoption of feed based aquaculture as the major driver of aquaculture production growth (FAO, 2016). However, the demand for aquaculture feed in the country will touch to 7 million tons by 2017-18. Hence, there is wide gap in demand and supply of feed. The feed cost is a major production cost in aquaculture in India yet feeding of fish is still mostly guesswork, each fish producer following different guidelines (feed charts) or adopting different practices. Feeding too much leads to feed wastage, a pure economic loss, and greater waste output. Feeding too little results in less growth and this also represents an economic loss. In intensive and semi intensive aquaculture, natural foods are not sufficient to meet our overall nutritional requirement of the fishes for their survival and faster growth. Hence, the good quality supplementary diet which contains all required nutrients in recommended quantity were recommended by many aquaculture scientists for the better production. It is further opined by the researchers that it is economical to prepare supplementary feeds by using locally available ingredients. The dietary carbohydrates are usually quantitatively the largest constituent of diet (40-55% W/W) particularly in feeds for carps, the most dominant group of fishes with respect to not only world aquaculture but also Indian Aquaculture. The rice bran, corn, and wheat are the conventional carbohydrate sources in India. In North East Region of the country none of these items are produced locally in sufficient quantity (Kumar et al. 2018). Due to less of local production of these ingredients, cost of feed which generally constitute about 40-50% of total cost of production, increase tremendously in NEH region due high transportation cost. Hence, for development of ideal feed for carp based aquaculture in North East Region, optimization of feed cost is very important to make the fish production cost effective and more profitable.

Introduction

Horticultural crops comprising of fruits, vegetables, flowers, medicinal and aromatic plants, and mushrooms play an important role in meeting the livelihood, nutritional security and socio-economic development of farmers. India’s horticulture production (287 mt) surpassed food grain output (265 mt) fifth year in a row in 2016-17 (First Advance Estimates, 2016-17). Horticultural crops together contribute around 30.4% to the agricultural GDP from nearly 14% of the total cropped area, and contribute nearly 37% to the export of the agricultural commodity from the country (Anonymous, 2015). Fruits and vegetables are an important part of the human diet and a major source of biologically active substances such as vitamins and secondary metabolites. India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world, with a combined production of 260.7 million metric tons (91.7 million metric tons of fruits and 169 million metric tons of vegetables) during 2016-17.

Rapid growth in horticultural production has been accompanied by heavy use of pesticides thus causing major concern over health effects. Heavy pesticide use occurs, in part, because numerous pests attack horticultural crops, including the fruit itself, reducing market value and yield on high-value crops. Pesticide use raises safety concerns for agricultural workers who apply pesticides. Concern is particularly high in flower production because of heavy spraying in enclosed conditions. Potential food safety risks from pesticide residues are also a significant issue for importers of fresh fruits and vegetables and a market-risk factor for exporters who may have shipments detained or rejected if residues exceed allowable limits (George et al., 2003).

The increased use of chemical pesticides on horticultural crops has raised a number of economic, ecological and health concern. Economic concerns arise from the over reliance and use of chemical pesticides which increase the costs of production. Indiscriminate use of pesticides has resulted in ecological problems of common pests developing resistance, elimination of natural enemies and other beneficial arthropods, and environmental pollution. Human health concerns focus on risks from shortcomings in protective clothing, large deviations from recommended doses/situations, and excessive run-off into the soil and water sources. These concerns are exacerbated by poorly regulated internal markets for pesticides that have fostered usage of banned or outdated products; creating a situation that if not stopped will negatively impact on horticultural exports to countries with more stringent regulatory requirements for fresh crop produce. Meeting these food safety requirements has become a major challenge for the fresh produce export sector of many countries. To ensure and maintain export compliance, grower and consumer safety, and environmental integrity; farmers, government and development partners are developing programmes designed to improve pesticides usage, regulation and management on horticultural crops (Karungi et al., 2011). In this chapter, major important horticultural crops grown in India have been selected to illustrate trends in pesticide usage and regulation, and the development and application of alternative pest management practices through farmer participation and training.

Introduction

Vegetables are important constituents of Indian agriculture and play important role in nutritional security due to their short duration, high yield, nutritional richness, economic viability and ability to generate on-farm and off-farm employment. Vegetables form an integral part of staple diet in India where 42% population is vegetarian and vegetables are sources of daily requirement of nutrients, vitamins and minerals. Our country is blessed with diverse agro-climates with distinct seasons, making it possible to grow wide array of vegetables. The role of vegetable cultivation in the country’s nutritional security, poverty alleviation and employment generation is becoming increasingly important. There are vast opportunities available in export sector, which need to be harnessed to their fullest ability. Vegetable crops have high yield potential and calories per unit area compared to that of cereals in the shortest time. Additionally, vegetable cultivation creates employment in rural sector, as it is a labour intensive farming practice. Vegetables are good source of ready farm income, besides being rich in health building substances, especially protective nutrients (Kalia, 2010 and Meena et al., 2016).

Introduction

Multiplication and perpetuation of plants through sexual and asexual means at desired quantum and quality is one of the important aspects of successful horticultural development. For successful propagation, stock production and growth of plants some facilities in the nursery, field or greenhouses are required for mass multiplication of the saplings. Horticultural crops included annuals, biennial and perennial crops so careful planning is require for the quality and genuinely. We known the various methods of propagation i.e., seed, cuttings or grafting and budding can be used for faster and true to type sapling production (Aldriance and Brison, 2000). Plantlets propagation mainly depends on season in open conditions, but for round the year material multiplication require hi-tech propagation structures like greenhouses, cold frames low polyethylene tunnels, sun tunnels, shade houses (lath houses), tissue culture facilities, hot frames and net house (Singh et al., 2003; Ratha Krishna et al., 2014). Field management for mass multiplication of saplings require partial modification and refined in nursery beds preparation (raised bed in high rainfall area and sunken bed in arid region), mother bed preparation (bed with mixture of media, where generally seeds are sowing in enclosed area and all viable and vigours seedlings at early stage may be shifted in poly bags for further growth) and poly bag nursery (saplings of horticultural crops are produced in poly bags of 150-200 gauge and different sizes i.e., 25 x10 cm (ber, khejri), 15 x10 cm (phalsa and pomegranate, karonda) and 30 x17 cm (kinnow, mosambi, aonla, sapota, mango) etc. Propagated plants should be healthy, vigorous and free from disease, weed, insect-pests as well as grafted plants should be equal in size of scion – rootstock, proper in shoot: root ratio and appropriate in morphological standard of scion according to varieties and species.